S-g-m-d-n-S Among the most revered ragas in the entire Hindustani pantheon, Malkauns (‘He who wears serpents as garlands’) combines structural simplicity with a nuanced mythological ethos. Said to have been composed by the goddess Parvati to soothe Lord Shiva’s murderous rage, in turn inspired by his wife Sati’s fiery death, its ‘all-komal‘ swara set is […]
• Raag Malkauns •
• Raag Todi •
S-r-g-M-P-d-N-S Pivotal to Hindustani history, Todi overflows with musical ideas found nowhere else on the planet. Some link its ambiguous geometries with ‘existential anguish and unsettlement’, while others hear ‘the playfulness of a newborn, content and smiling’. Rajan Parrikar hails it as “the most profound, finespun idea in melodic music…from ecstasy, to frolic, to pathos, […]
• Raag Bhairavi •
S-r-g-m-P-d-n-S Probably the most prominent raga in the entire Hindustani canon, the dawn Bhairavi (‘awe, terror’: named after the fearsome Fifth Avatar of Mahadevi, the Mother Goddess) is a concert-closing staple. Unique in its chromatic flexibilities, the raga’s ‘Mishra Bhairavi’ form can span the full swara spectrum, allowing for a multitude of moods in the […]
• Raag Yaman •
S-R-G-M-P-D-N-S Among the first-learned and most-performed ragas, Yaman’s influence on modern Hindustani music is impossible to overstate. Linked to the early night hours (‘when lanterns are lit’), the disbalancing effects of tivra Ma – the only non-shuddha swara on offer – allow for a kaleidoscopic emotional range, with Sa and Pa often being skipped in […]
• Raag Bhairav •
S-r-G-m-P-d-N-S Revered as the foremost raga of Lord Shiva, the morning Bhairav takes its name from Kala Bhairava (‘Bhaya-Rava’: ‘the one who roars fear’) – an apocalyptic manifestation of the deity fabled to have cut off one of Brahma’s five heads to silence his arrogance. Renditions reflect the gravity of these ancient tales, depicting Shiva’s […]
• Raag Darbari •
S-R-g-m-P-d-n-S Darbari has been described as “the Emperor of Ragas, and the Raga of Emperors”. Its majestic tones famously echoed across the marble floors of Mughal palaces in centuries past, bringing solemn relief to kings, warlords, and diplomats alike. Consequently, modern renditions tend to retain a grave, reverential patience, pairing pakad of (n)dnP & (m)gmR amidst […]
• Raag Miyan ki Malhar •
S-R-g-m-P-D-nN-S Derived from the Sanskrit for ‘banishing uncleanliness’, the Malhar family is inextricably linked to the rejuvenating effects of rain. The main raga of this lineage is named ‘Miyan ki Malhar’ for its connections to Miyan Tansen, the great composer of Emperor Akbar’s 16th-century royal court, who is said to have sung it to summon […]
• Raag Lalit •
S-r-G-mM-d-N-S Lalit (meaning ‘Lyrical’) is an oddly-shaped sunrise raga, resembling ‘Bhairav with Pa lowered a semitone’. Among the most influential forms in Hindustani history (see the Lalit raganga), its distinctive ‘double Ma, no Pa’ structure has a malleable ambiguity, capable of conjuring flavours ranging from ‘sadness and anguish’ to ‘the serene and devotional‘ (as per […]
• Raag Shree •
S-r-G-M-P-d-N-S According to Gwalior vocalist Omkarnath Thakur, Shree’s seven swaras are associated with those sunset hours when “disembodied spirits…become active, and aid in the black magic of Tantriks”. Tied to mythologies of Lord Shiva, the raga takes its name from ‘Sri’ (श्री), a sacred Sanskrit syllable which, in Vedic tradition, represents the material nature of […]
• Raag Puriya Dhanashree •
S-r-G-M-P-d-N-S Associated with the sunset hours, Puriya Dhanashree’s origins lie in an archaic blending of the Puriya/Poorvi and Dhanashree lineages, finding mention in shastras such as Faqirullah’s Rag Darpan, written for Emperor Aurangzeb in 1666. Pa is the most vital swara, easing the tension of the tivra Ma by anchoring pakads such as NrGMP, PMGMrGP […]
• Raag Bhupali •
S-R-G-P-D-S Hailed for its structural simplicity, Bhupali is often among the first ragas taught to Hindustani students. While its basic ‘Major Pentatonic‘ scale form is shared by countless global cultures, the North Indian incarnation (named for Madhya Pradesh’s Bhopal region) presents its own quirks – invoking tranquillity and home-bound reassurance with interlinked sliding motions between […]
• Raag Bageshri •
S-R-g-m-P-D-n-S An ancient raga of the late night, Bageshri is associated with ‘vipralambha’ – the profound shades of longing felt by a separated lover. These sentiments are reflected in its multipolar phraseology: artists may resolve towards shuddha ma for a more open, expansive sound (DnSgm), or towards Sa for a clustered, inward-turning feel (mgRS: sometimes […]
• Raag Ahir Bhairav •
S-r-G-m-P-D-n-S Ahir Bhairav’s distinctive swara set is inextricably linked to visions of the Indian sunrise. While the raga’s poorvang matches the usual pattern of the Bhairav raganga (SrGm), its uttarang presents its own geometries, taking a shuddha Dha and komal ni (PDnS) in a manner closer to the Kafi–ang (although many artists tune their Dha sruti […]
• Raag Puriya •
S-r-G-M-D-N-S A prominent sunset raga, Puriya takes the same six swaras as Marwa and Sohini, reworking them to present a distinct set of melodic forces. Renditions tend to focus on mandra and madhya saptak, seeking a relatively even balance between ascending and descending phrases – with its character often considered more ‘melodic’ than Marwa (which is […]
• Raag Marwa •
S-r-G-M-D-N-S Notable for omitting its own Sa for long stretches, the hexatonic Marwa conjures moods of ‘austere, spiritual renunciation’ – summoning these sentiments with low, slow lines which patiently outline the raga’s highly irregular geometry (three adjacent plus three wide-set swaras: NSr; GMD). Its descent-dominant melodies, which avoid Pa throughout, often tease at resolutions which […]
• Raag Bihag •
S-R-G-mM-P-D-N-S Created via the artful grafting of tivra Ma onto a Bilawal-oriented base, Bihag contains a wealth of melodic possibilities. Long linked to late evening festivities, its meend-laden tendencies are explored with expressive articulations and fluid resolution phrases, guided by nuanced swara hierarchies which may display significant gharana-to-gharana variance. Artists often begin with the launch phrase […]
• Raag Bhimpalasi •
S-R-g-m-P-D-n-S Associated with the invigorating warmth of the late afternoon sun, Bhimpalasi evokes multiple shades of shringara (‘romantic love, erotic desire’). Thought to have arisen from an archaic union between Bheem and the near-extinct Palas, the raga calls for direct, passionate melodic outpourings, balancing a deft pentatonic ascent (nSgmPnS: prakriti with Dhani) against the symmetry-inducing […]
• Raag Bilaskhani Todi •
S-r-g-m-P-d-n-S A hallowed form, Bilaskhani Todi is fabled to have been created by Bilas Khan: son of Tansen, the legendary composer of Emperor Akbar’s 16th-century durbar. On trying to sing Todi at his father’s funeral wake, Bilas found himself so grief-stricken that he mixed up the swaras – however, his panic was allayed on witnessing […]
• Raag Khamaj •
S-R-G-m-P-D-n-S Among the most popular light-classical ragas, Khamaj’s core form matches the ultra-versatile Mixolydian Mode of Western music. Despite being chosen by Bhatkhande as the titular raga of Khamaj thaat, renditions will usually draw on melodic combinations from outside these main seven swaras. Described by Tanarang as “light and enthralling, but not sedate…with a husky […]
• Raag Bilawal •
S-R-G-m-P-D-N-S Approximates the Western Major Scale, thus taking an ‘all-shuddha’ sampurna swara set – and selected by the great V.N. Bhatkhande as the titular raga of Bilawal thaat – although its popularity has declined in the century since (partly in favour of prakritis such as Tilak Kamod and Bihari). Ga assumes a vital role, as […]
• Raag Desh •
S-R-G-m-P-D-nN-S Intimately connected to Indian national identity, Desh gives melodic direction to the famous patriotic anthem Vande Mataram, as well as soundtracking dozens of Rabindrasangeet. Associated with the second quarter of night, renditions tend towards the sweet and amorous, with Deepak Raja noting clear divergence between ‘classicist’ and ‘romanticist’ treatments (the former is confined to […]
• Raag Brindabani Sarang •
S-R-m-P-nN-S Brindabani Sarang, the principal raga of its lineage, is mythically linked to a fabled interaction between Lord Krishna and 16th-century mystic-musician Swami Haridas – whose initial rendition of the raga summoned an incarnation of the deity to earth (‘Brindabani’ refers to the Vrindavan forests where Krishna spent his youth). Characteristically, it takes shuddha Ni […]
• Raag Jaijaiwanti •
S-R-gG-m-P-D-nN-S A much-beloved and highly intricate raga featuring both variants of Ga and Ni – which shares significant overlap with Gara. Dhrupadyas hold NSDnR as the essential pakad, with some bemoaning the loss of the “slow glide from Ga to Re as Jaijaiwanti’s distinguishing feature” – while most performers tend to ‘enclose’ komal ga in […]
• Raag Basant •
S-r-G-M-P-d-N-S Basant (meaning ‘Springtime’) is a historic and highly influential form, with a lineage stretching back to at least the 8th century. The raga’s modern incarnation matches the swaras of Poorvi thaat, with shades of shuddha ma also permitted in many interpretations (e.g. SmmG; mdrS). Phraseological allies include Puriya (GMdNM; mdGmG) and Shree (e.g. NrS; […]
• Raag Megh (Malhar) •
S-R-m-P-n-S Among the oldest surviving members of the Malhar family, Megh (‘Cloud’) is said to have saved the life of Miyan Tansen himself. Legend holds that the great composer’s powerful rendition of the fire-bringing Deepak caused the oil lamps in Emperor Akbar’s 16th-century royal palace to ignite and burn uncontrollably – and, soon, all the […]
• Raag Asavari •
S-rR-g-m-P-d-n-S A late-morning raga listed in ancient shastras as a ragini of Malkauns, Asavari presents three modern variants: an older, Dhrupad-rooted ‘komal re’ form, a more recent ‘shuddha Re’ interpretation, and a less common ‘double-Re‘ form with Re in aroha and re in avroh (mainly sung by Agra vocalists). The komal re form allows for avroh chayas […]
• Raag Gujiri Todi •
S-r-g-M-d-N-S A popular Todi variant named for its historic associations with Gujarat, India’s Westernmost state. Linked to the morning hours, it distinguishes itself from the main Todi by omitting Pa throughout. Tanarang cites a mood of “sweetness and karuna“, revolving around a deergha komal re – with komal dha also playing a prominent role, separated from […]
• Raag Patdeep •
S-R-g-m-P-D-N-S Rooted in the Dhanashree family, Patdeep somewhat resembles a ‘shuddha Ni Bhimpalasi’ (akin to the Western Melodic Minor), with both ragas ascending pentatonically before revealing Re and Dha in descent. Its unique scale structure, which features a distinctive run of four adjacent whole-tone jumps in descent (N>D>P>m>g), bringing natural prominence to komal ga and shuddha Ni […]
• Raag Multani •
S-r-g-M-P-d-N-S Multani is an afternoon raga of angular shape and ancient heritage, which, while matching the seven swaras of Todi thaat, is a Dhanashree family raga with corresponding phrase patterns – re and dha are omitted in ascent and generally rendered durbal throughout. Bhatkhande is said to have considered it the ‘daytime’ counterpart of Basant […]
• Raag Kafi •
S-R-g-m-P-D-n-S Perhaps more like a compendium of interlinked folk tunes than a ‘formally codified’ raga framework, Kafi offers expansive freedoms. Typically appearing in mishra (‘mixed’) form, its free-roaming melodies may borrow from affiliated ragas as well as drawing on a wide range of light-classical styles such as thumri, bhajan, dadra, and ghazal – although most […]
• Raag Nat (Shuddha) •
S-R-G-m-P-D-N-S Described by Parrikar as “singular for its unabashed promiscuity”, Nat is perennially popular as a jod ingredient (see Nat Bihag, Nat Bhairav, Nat Kamod, Chayanat, and Jaijaiwanti Nat). The raga has likely origins in the age before Hindustani and Carnatic music’s bifurcation (while seemingly being unrelated to the Southern ‘Nata’), although renditions of its […]
• Raag Bhupali Todi •
S-r-g-P-d-S A captivating audav raga said to symbolise spiritual purity, which essentially runs along the lines of ‘what if all Bhupali‘s chal swaras (Re, Ga, Dha) were komal rather than shuddha?’ (SRGPDS > SrgPdS). Most renditions are poorvang-dominant, drawing from the Todi-ang as well as reshaping phrases from Bhupali, Bilaskhani Todi, and other forms (given the uniqueness […]
• Raag Sindhura •
S-R-g-m-P-D-nN-S A Kafi ally with corresponding light-classical popularity, marked out by the explicit use of double-Ni and the frequent omission of ga in aroha. Described by Tanarang as “a light flittering melody…best suited for thumri, tappa, and hori” – while Parrikar notes that “the approach to Sa takes two pathways: one drops Ni as in […]
• Raag Shuddha Kalyan •
S-R-G-M-P-D-N-S A popular early night raga, Shuddha Kalyan ascends with the same five swaras as Bhupali (SRGPDS), and descends with the full seven of Yaman (SNDPMGRS), leading some to title it ‘Bhoop-Kalyan’. Phrases tend to end on the poorvang-slanted Sa, Re, Ga, or Pa, and both the ‘avroh-only’ swaras (Ni & Ma) must be treated subtly throughout – […]
• Raag Gara •
S-R-gG-m-P-D-nN-S Gara is a disparate melodic lineage, derived from thumri compositions of centuries past: Manuel’s research describes it as “a loose, informal melodic entity until the 18th century, after which [its] grammar was organised by classically trained musicians…like Kafi, Pilu, Jungala, Barwa, and Zila”. Often close to Jaijaiwanti, the modern Gara may also draw from […]
• Raag Gorakh Kalyan •
S-R-m-P-D-n-S A spacious, folksy raga of the late evening, Gorakh Kalyan (named for the Gorakhpur region of Uttar Pradesh) has fabled associations with Saint Gorakhnath, an 11th-century yogi mystic-musician who is said to have travelled throughout the Subcontinent in search of spiritual wisdom and sonic enrichment. Despite its name, the raga’s modern form has no […]
• Raag Dhani •
S-g-m-P-n-S Despite its ‘Minor Pentatonic’ scale form enjoying global popularity as the predominant mode of blues, rock, pop, and countless other guitar-driven genres, Dhani is comparatively rare as a raga in its own right – with its swara set mostly being heard as the ‘aroha of Bhimpalasi’ rather than in isolation (…it may be the […]
• Raag Madhumad Sarang •
S-R-m-P-n-S Running along the lines of ‘Brindabani Sarang with komal ni only’, Madhumad Sarang is among the principal incarnations of its raganga (‘Madhumad’ derives from the Sanskrit ‘madhyamadi’: the Carnatic equivalent is similarly titled ‘Madhyamavati’). Ma and Pa are strong, and the PnS uttarang summons natural momentum, with crisp melodic articulations set against the scale’s palindromic […]
• Raag Tilak Kamod •
S-R-G-m-P-D-N-S Mirroring the tones of the Western Major Scale, Tilak Kamod’s seven swaras offer robust melodic flexibility across a range of sentiments (“heroic courage, philosophic poise, devotional contentment, suggestive eroticism…”). Some trace the raga’s origin to Pyar Khan, a rabab-playing descendent of Tansen via his son Bilas Khan, who is said to have picked it […]
• Raag Nayaki Kanada •
S-R-g-m-P-n-S A popular Kanada variant usually said to have been named after Gopal Nayak, the legendary poet-composer of Alauddin Khilji’s 12th-century Delhi durbar – however, Bor highlights that Faqirullah’s 1666 Raga Darpan treatise instead connects the origins of the entire Kanada lineage to 17th-century musician Nayak Bakshu of Raja Man Singh’s royal court (best known as […]
• Raag Maru •
S-R-G-M-D-N-S Rare to the point of near-extinction in its own right, the historic Maru is now best known as an ingredient of the highly popular Maru Bihag. In the words of scholar-singer Arun Dravid: “It is not well known, even in the music world, that Maru Bihag is a mixed raga…very few people know that […]
• Raag Kedar •
S-R-mM-P-D-N-S An early night raga, Kedar is associated with heat (Tanarang: “there is much thermal energy in this melody…hence it is regarded as a ragini of Deepak“, Tansen’s legendary fire-bringing raga) – as well as being mythically connected to Lord Shiva (“Seeking to evade the Pandavas after the Kurukshetra war, Shiva took refuge in Kedarnath […]
• Raag Tilang •
S-G-m-P-nN-S A folksy Khamaj raga featuring distinctive double-Ni interplay, seemingly of ancient Southern origin (Bor: “Tilang probably originated in Telangana, and may have been introduced to the North by an unknown 15th-to-16th-century poet-composer“). Definitive phrases are focused on the mid-scale Ga–Ni space (GmPnP; GmPNS), with interpretations often adorned with various mishra flourishes (see melodic summary […]
• Raag Shuddha Malhar •
S-R-m-P-D-S Perhaps the oldest surviving Malhar raga (‘shuddha’, as well as referring to ‘pure’ or ‘unaltered’ specific swaras, can also designate a ‘primary’ or ‘original’ quality: as with the similarly-ancient Shuddha Basant), marked by “a ponderous gait and a meend-rich contour”. As per the accompanying notes to a K.G. Ginde lecture, Shuddha Malhar is distinguished […]
• Raag Hindol •
S-G-M-D-N-S A captivating, challenging audav raga with all swaras appearing in their highest specific positions (i.e. no komals, and Ma, if present, is tivra: also see Bhupali, Hansadhwani, & Adbhut Kalyan). The name translates as ‘swinging’: indicative of the raga’s melodic character, which is built around ‘swaying’ motions between a SGD trio of nyas, with […]
• Raag Gunkali •
S-r-m-P-d-S An enchanting morning raga, matching the swara set of ‘Bhupali komal re/dha’ (or ‘Shobhawari komal re’), described by Tanarang as “an epitome of bhakti and karuna…straightforward, and expandable in all three octaves”. While audav at its core, multivariate forms of the raga are in existence: some include shades of shuddha Ga in avroh (bringing hints […]
• Raag Ahiri •
S-r-g-m-P-D-n-S Traditionally held to cure stomach ailments, Ahiri allows for long, kaleidoscopic melodies – with a scale form resembling ‘Bageshri komal re’, ‘Ahir Bhairav komal ga’, or even ‘Bhairavi shuddha Dha’. Artists are relatively free to roam throughout the scale, drawing on ideas from Bageshri (gmDnS), Ahir Bhairav (PDnrS), Kafi (gmPDnS), and beyond – with many leaning […]
• Raag Shankara •
S-R-G-P-D-N-S Long fabled as a favourite of Lord Shiva, Shankara (‘Auspicious‘) takes its name from a famous epithet of the deity (Rajan Parrikar: “the musical embodiment of [Shiva’s] personality, comporting with all its attributes: raudra, veera, irascible, volatile, capricious…”). Often considered a pre-midnight raga, it ascends with SGPDNS, often in vakra patterns, before adding subtle […]
• Raag Patmanjari •
(S-rR-gG-mM-P-dD-nN-S) Said by some to be more of a ‘performance concept’ than a single raga, ‘Patmanjari’ translates as ‘Bouquet of Five Ragas’. Debate persists over whether the form should be interpreted as an open challenge to blend five ragas of an artist’s own choosing, or whether it entails five specific ragas – and, if so, […]
• Raag Malashree •
S-G-P-S Often said to comprise only three swaras (a SGP major triad), Malashree pushes the bounds of raga definition. Arguably, this challenge is its defining purpose, calling on performers to find expressive freedom within an ultra-limited framework (as per Dagarvani beenkar Bahauddin Dagar, “We do not believe in ‘small’ vs. ‘big’ ragas: Malashree for example […]
