Ragascape: Documenting (virtually) every raga I’ve yet encountered: swara-set summaries, contextual overviews, phraseologies, prakriti forms, listening links, etc. Also see search tips – and don’t hesitate to get in touch!
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—Hindustani Ragalist—
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• MORE RAGAS: shortform swara-set summaries •
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[Random Raga]
“There is confusion around defining ragas. To learn just one raga, you must also know five more along with it…like a game of hide-and-seek. In this way, each raga is a mirror of all Hindustani music.” (Parveen Sultana)
—Search the Raga Index—
• Also see the RAGATABLE •
• Raag Abheri Todi •
S-rR-gG-m-P-d-n-S
Described by musicologist and critic Rajan Parrikar as “another obscure [Todi] variant, in which strands of Asavari and Khamaj are tied to the Todi-anga”. His guru Ramrang’s rendition of the raga revolves around phrases such as PmPm\g; mPn\d; SRnS; rnSRG – while the name presumably derives from the near-congruent Carnatic Abheri. Remains rare on the concert stage.
–Ramashreya Jha ‘Ramrang’ (~1990s)–
• Raag Abhogi •
S-R-g-m-D-S
The Carnatic-imported Abhogi is a rare ‘audav Kanada’ raga – somewhat resembling ‘Darbari no Pa/ni’ (or, if the mgmRS Kanada signature is de-emphasised, ‘Bageshri aroha no ni’). As per Tanarang, the raga’s Darbaric poorvang movements “creates a deep atmosphere…[which] can be expanded in all the three octaves” – while the ultra-sparse uttarang (MPdDnN) presents a curious creative challenge. Often classed as a night raga.
–Premkumar Mallick (2014)–
• Raag Adana •
S-R-g-m-P-d-n-S
Though congruent with the swaras of Darbari, Adana favours a “lighter, flittering” treatment – skipping ga in aroha, limiting ornaments on dha, and focusing more on madhya/taar saptak (although the gmRS Kanada signature may reappear in avroh), while some may assign a higher sruti to the komal ni. The raga appears in several 17th-century ragmala paintings, with recurring imagery of ascetics lost in meditative pose.
–Buddhadev Das Gupta (1999)–
• Raag Adarangi Todi •
S-r-g-mM-P-d-nN-S
A double-ma, double-ni Todi variant linked to 18th-century composer Naimat Khan ‘Sadarang’ and his nephew Feroze Khan ‘Adarang’, who served at the court of Mughal Emperor (and prolific arts patron) Muhammad Shah. While the raga’s historical lineage remains half-sketched, Ali Akbar Khan took to performing it later in his career. Sometimes given the alternate title of ‘Turki’ or ‘Turusk’ Todi (a name which appears in the 13th-century Sangita Ratnakara: although it is unclear what connection this may have to the modern form).
–Ali Akbar Khan (~1980s)–
• Raag Adbhut Kalyan •
S-R-G-D-N-S
An uncommon Kalyan variety, named Adbhut (‘of wonder’) for omitting two of Kalyan’s most vital swaras (Ma & Pa). Remains popular among artists of the Dagarvani Dhrupad, but few others have risen to the centreless challenges of losing both mid-saptak swaras. Aminuddin Dagar reportedly considered the raga to be an offshoot of Khem Kalyan – while Uday Bhawalkar links it to the swara-congruent Carnatic Niroshta, possibly borrowed South by Muthiah Bhagavatar (‘niroshta’ roughly translates as ‘without the lips’: Ma and Pa being the only swara-syllables which require them when singing!).
–Nirmalya Dey (2013)–
• Raag Adi Basant •
S-rR-G-m-P-D-N-S
An alternate form of the more prevalent Basant (‘Springtime’), named for its intimate connection to the ceremonies of that season. Many scholars see Adi Basant as the latter’s ancestor, highlighting its prevalence in Dhrupad and Haveli Sangeet. Usually played before dawn, the raga is rare outside the Dhrupad gharanas.
–Bahauddin Dagar (2019)–
• Raag Ahir Bhairav •
S-r-G-m-P-D-n-S
Inextricably linked with the Indian sunrise, Ahir Bhairav draws on ideas from both the North and South of the Subcontinent. Possibly named for the Ahir cattle-herding caste, the raga is fabled to mimic the ringing of cowbells at dawn – with patient ascent patterns often settling into extended oscillations on the komal re (seen by some to symbolise the sun’s morning emergence).
–Wasifuddin Dagar (2018)–
• Raag Ahir Lalit •
S-r-G-mM-D-n-S
Introduced by Ravi Shankar, drawing from the swara material of three morning ragas: Ahiri, Ahir Bhairav, and Lalit. As per Deepak Raja, “for most listeners, Ahir Lalit will be unable to escape the shadow of Ahir Bhairav over the Lalit facet of the raga…since Ahiri is heard mainly as a Bhairav / Ahir Bhairav variant”. Nevertheless, the raga’s distinctive ‘double-Ma, no Pa’ structure allows for unmistakeable flavours of Lalit – and, being a rare and recently-created raga, its phraseologies remain largely uncodified, with fresh melodic expanses open to the individual interpretation of performers.
–Ravi Shankar (1971)–
• Raag Ahiri •
S-r-g-m-P-D-n-S
Somewhat resembling a ‘Bageshri komal re’, ‘Ahir Bhairav komal ga’, or ‘Patdeep komal ni’, Ahiri favours long, kaleidoscopic melodies, laden with shapes from nearby ragas. Many artists give special prominence to an ‘equilateral triangle’ of nyas (r-m-D), while also drawing from its murchana-set neighbours Patdeep, Charukeshi, and Vachaspati. Matches the Carnatic Natakapriya, although ultimate origins remain mysterious.
–Harmeet Virdee (2009)–
• Raag Ahiri Todi •
S-R-g-m-P-D-nN-S
While the title ‘Ahiri Todi’ is often used interchangeably with Ahiri, the former raga has a more complex historical lineage: comprising both an Ahiri–congruent form which many consider indistinct from each other (SrgmPDnS) – and an older, near-extinct version which approximates the shape of Asavari thaat (SRgmPDnNS). Agra vocalist Khadim Hussain Khan’s intriguing recording of this second form – one of only a few I can find – displays an unusually strong poorvang-dominance, revolving around phrases such as S(n)S, Sg, (m)g, RSR. Dha is skipped in aroha, and and touches of a ‘mid-sruti Ni’ manifest in how root motifs blur the distinction between S(n)S; S(N)S. To add further intrigue, a third ‘Ahiri Todi’ variant seems to have existed in the past, with B. Subba Rao’s Raga Nidhi listing a raga with this name under the swara set ‘SrgmPdnNS’ (possibly implying that it may have been a ‘bridge’ between the two forms above: although the komal dha vadi puzzles me…).
–Khadim Hussain Khan (~1970s)–
• Raag Alhaiya Bilawal •
S-R-G-m-P-D-nN-S
While essentially summarisable as ‘Bilawal plus komal ni’, Alhaiya also presents other quirks. Most distinctively, Dha is treated as the vadi, but not as a nyas (Pa and Ga are used as stopping tones instead, often being reached via meend). Dha is also used to support komal ni via ‘up-and-down’ phrases such as SNDP, DnDP, giving an overall tendency towards uttarang-dominance. The raga has a long history (Pulokesh Bose: “the name Alhaiya are found in the books of Pandit Lochan and Hridaya Narayanadeva…in the 16th century”).
–Ashwini Bhide-Deshpande (2018)–
• Raag Ambika Sarang •
S-R-mM-P-D-nN-S
According to Rajan Parrikar, Ambika Sarang “was designed by [Agra vocalist] Chidanand Nagarkar…elements of Shuddha Sarang and Kafi are blended together in a delicious cocktail”. Ga is banished, allowing for Saraswati-tinged movements. While Nagarkar’s naming reasons are unclear, ‘ambika’ (meaning ‘mother’ in Sanskrit) is closely tied to the goddess Adi Parashakti: a weapon-wielding demon slayer held in Hindu lore as the ultimate matriarch of the universe (and the deity who gave the others their names…).
–Parveen Sultana (2007)–
• Raag Amiri Todi •
(S-rR-g-m-P-dD-n-S?)
Created by sarod maestro Amjad Ali Khan in 1974, inspired by vocalist Amir Khan. As recounted to Indian Express in 2009: “My love and reverence for Khansaheb does not stem only from his music, but for his truly kind and humble nature. When he died, it appeared as if the light had gone out of our lives. The idea [for] Amiri Todi developed in my mind during that period of the intense grief…A mixture of two of my most favourite ragas sung by Khansaheb, Sahana and Bilaskhani Todi“. Recordings prove elusive (thus, the suggested swara-set is just an ‘addition’ of these two ragas).
–Amjad Ali Khan (1974)–
• Raag Amirkhani Kauns •
S-G-M-P-n-S
A ‘pentatonic Vachaspati’ created (as the name implies) by Indore vocal master Amir Khan, which omits Re and Dha (thus, Amirkhani Kauns is to Vachaspati as Dhani is to Kafi). All swaras except Sa are imperfect – with the unusual Ma–ni sangati exerting inevitable gravity and drawing melodies away from clear resolution. Few of the Ustad’s renditions have made it to record, and an extended take from shortly before his tragic 1974 passing (possibly part of his very last concert) just lists it as ‘Untitled Raga’ (side B of the same LP contains another untitled form, which is in fact Chandramadhu: the same scale but with komal ga). As noted by Abhirang, the SGMPnS swara set is also known as ‘Yogini’ (Sanskrit for ‘state of union’: the same derivation as ‘yoga’ and ‘Jog’), which he links to the lineage of the Carnatic Hrodini – and elsewhere I’ve seen it referred to as ‘Audav Ram Kalyan’ (also refer to the numerous Vachaspati renditions with a weak or absent aroha Re).
–Amir Khan (1974)–
• Raag Amrut Ranjani •
S-gG-m-dD-n-S
[summary]
–Ulhas Bapat (2003)–
• Raag Anand Bhairav •
S-r-G-m-P-D-nN-S
As per Rajan Parrikar, “the komal dha in Bhairav is replaced by its shuddha counterpart. The komal ni is parachuted into the scheme in an [avroh phrase] SDnP, inspired by Bilawal (in Bhairav-ang ragas where either re or dha is rendered shuddha, the ma tends to assume a powerful role, and is often elevated to a vadi swara). Care must be exercised to not let Anand Bhairav stray into Bhatiyar’s neighbourhood”.
–Sanjeev Abhyankar (2014)–
• Raag Anjani Kalyan •
S-R-g-M-P-D-N-S
A creation of vocalist Ramashreya Jha ‘Ramrang’, named in honour of Lord Hanuman. As per his student Rajan Parrikar, “the basic idea involves rendering the aroha of Madhuvanti sampurna, by taking in both [shuddha] Re and Dha. The aroha contour thus…permits the advance of Kalyan-like clusters”. Abhirang’s rendition of Ramrang’s original bandish (Hanana Hanumana Manake) features strong meend on ga, Ma, & Dha (which, with Sa, form a ‘diminished square’: S–g–M–D). Congruent with the Carnatic Dharmavati.
–Abhijith Shenoy ‘Abhirang’ (2020)–
• Raag Annapurna •
S-r-g-M-P-d-N-S
From my 2018 Darbar interview with bansuri maestro Rupak Kulkarni: “I lately composed…Raag Annapurna: dedicated to Maa Annapurna Devi, my grand-guru [teacher of my teacher]. It is a combination of morning and evening ragas, so can be played at either of these times.” In 2022 I asked Kulkarni for more info: he described it as “a mixture of Todi and Shree“, blending multiple elements from both ragas – also sending me the mellifluous alap video below (as far as I can tell, the only recording out there…).
–Rupak Kulkarni (2019)–
• Raag Antardhwani •
S-r-g-m-d-N-S
Among the youngest ragas to have found global acclaim, Antardhwani (‘sound of the inner self’) was unveiled by Shivkumar Sharma in the 1990s, who discovered its hexatonic shape by chance while retuning his santoor. Drawing from the geometries of Bhairavi, the raga is adored for its calming, meditative flavours, partly inspired by the late Pandit’s lifelong love of yoga. Swara-congruent with Viyogavarali, a rare Carnatic import.
–Shivkumar Sharma (1997)–
• Raag Arun Malhar •
S-R-G-m-P-D-nN-S
An ancient Malhar variant, marked out by a DDnPDGPm pakad. As per Rajan Parrikar, “although it finds a mention in [Bhatkhande], no details are forthcoming. There are a couple of other works where the raga is treated, but again only in the sketchiest of terms”. Described as a mix of Bilawal, Gaud Malhar, and Shuddha Malhar, seasoned with “a Tilang-like tonal phrase, provid[ing] a very pleasing effect”. Modern-era renditions are rare.
–Ramashreya Jha ‘Ramrang’ (1989)–
• Raag Asa Bhairav •
S-rR-G-m-P-D-N-S
A joining of Bhairav and the archaic Sikh form Asa (Sanskrit for ‘hope’), matching the swaras of ‘Bilawal double-Re’ – with the shuddha taken in ascent, and the komal in descent. Parrikar notes that “the Bhairav-ang is expressed in the poorvang [e.g. Gm(G)rS], and the rest of the contour looks to Asa [e.g. S, S(m)RmP, DNPD, S]…Ravi Shankar furnishes a delightful play on the theme”. Shankar notes having “learned this rare raga from Baba [Allauddin Khan], and developed it myself…its mood is of viraha shringar” [‘the loneliness of being apart from a lover’] . Few other artists have cut full-length recordings, leaving ample space for future experimentation.
–Ravi Shankar (1991)–
• Raag Asavari •
S-rR-g-m-P-d-n-S
An antique late morning raga, Asavari comprises two main variants: an older, Dhrupad-favoured ‘komal re’ form, and a more recent set of ‘shuddha Re’ offshoots. Both call for complex connective motions and expressive oscillations on dha, which may be tuned ati-komal. Classical ragmala paintings often depict Asavari as a female snake-charmer sitting atop a mountain. Depending on re/Re position, can be swara-congruent with Bhairavi and Bilaskhani Todi (komal re); or Adana, Darbari, Jaunpuri, and Kaunsi Kanada (shuddha Re).
–Pelva Naik (2019)–
• Raag Bageshri •
S-R-g-m-P-D-n-S
An ancient raga of the late night, Bageshri is associated with vipralambha – the profound longing felt by a separated lover. These sentiments are reflected in its multipolar phraseology: artists may resolve to Sa for a clustered, inward-turning feel, or to ma for a more open sound – often seen as symbolising two lovers, or competing waves of emotion within a single soul. Swara-congruent with Bhimpalasi, Shahana, Raisa Kanada, and others.
–Shahid Parvez (2017)–
• Raag Bageshri Bahar •
S-R-g-m-P-D-nN-S
[summary]
–Bhimsen Joshi (1997)–
• Raag Bahaduri Todi •
S-rR-g-m-P-d-n-S
[summary]
–Mallikarjun Mansur (~1990s)–
• Raag Bahar •
S-R-g-m-P-D-nN-S
As per Tanarang, Bahar (meaning ‘spring’) “brings out nature’s beautiful blessings…full of shringar and bhakti ras…khatkas and intricate taans are conducive to its dynamic, fleeting nature”. While rooted in the Kanada raganga, the raga features both Ni variants, with the shuddha being more prominent. Bageshri hallmarks are also evident in the weak aroha Re, and the use of shuddha ma as nyas (e.g. S/m, m/n\P) – although Pa is also strong, and the Kanada avroh signature is preferred (e.g. Pgm, gmRS. In recent generations, the raga has proved itself an attractive jod ingredient (Parrikar: “highly promiscuous, and has been found in flagrante delicto with several other ragas”), appearing in such conjunctions as Bhairav Bahar, Bageshri Bahar, Rageshri Bahar, and Tilang Bahar.
–Shashank Maktedar (2020)–
• Raag Bairagi •
S-r-m-P-n-S
A pentatonic form introduced to the ragascape by Ravi Shankar in the 1940s. Its swara set – which concisely scatters interval jumps of 1, 2, 3, and 4 semitones – is describable as ‘Megh komal re’ (or ‘Lilavati no Ga’), while its melodies generally draw from the Bhairav–ang (e.g. sustained oscillations on komal re). Generally favoured by instrumentalists more than vocalists, although audav specialist Amir Khan‘s renditions are ever-sublime. The nSr grouping is reminiscent of Vedic-era chant refrains (in Anoushka Shankar’s words, “Bairagi has this deep, spiritual, internal quality”), while the overall swara-set resembles the Carnatic Revathi – and also the ‘Insen Scale’ of Japanese classical music (as highlighted in Aishik Bandyopadhyay’s Comparative Study between Indian Ragas and Japanese Scales).
–Shahid Parvez Khan (2021)–
• Raag Bairagi Todi •
S-r-g-P-n-S
Created by Ravi Shankar, Bairagi Todi replaces Bairagi’s ma with a Todi-intoned ati-komal ga, retaining a concise audav structure while presenting an odd mix of narrow and wide intervals. Often set to unusual talas (Shankar’s original is in Sade-Gyarah, an 11.5-matra cycle divided as ‘4-4-2-1.5’), the raga is explorable in all octaves, with most artists favouring a ‘deep and heavy atmosphere’. Renditions continue to diverge in the post-Shankar era.
–Rashid Khan (1997)–
• Raag Bangal Bhairav •
S-r-G-m-P-d-S
[summary]
–Priyanshu Ghosh (2022)–
• Raag Baradi •
S-r-G-M-P-D-N-S
[summary]
–Anandrao Limaye (~1980s)–
• Raag Barwa •
S-R-g-m-P-D-nN-S
An Agra gharana speciality, Barwa blends ideas from Kafi (mP, mgR; mPDNS), Sindhura (SRmP; Pg), and Desi (RPRg). The komal ga tends to be omitted in aroha, and ma is rendered deergha, while Re–Pa is often given as the vadi-samvadi. Traditionally associated with the late morning hours, the raga is one of many Kafi-allied forms to have emerged from folk melodies (also see Zila Kafi), only becoming semi-formalised around the 18th century (Bhatkhande notes an older, audav form of Barwa: prakriti with the modern-day Dhani’s SgmPnS). Listen to classic khayal renditions by Faiyaz Khan & Latafat Hussain Khan (the ‘Prem Das’ and ‘Prem Priya’ of the Agra lineage) – as well as a rare instrumental take by sarodiya Buddhadev Dasgupta.
–Waseem Ahmed Khan (2021)–
• Raag Basant •
S-r-G-M-P-d-N-S
Basant (meaning ‘Springtime’) is a historic and highly influential form, with a lineage stretching back to at least the 8th century. The raga’s modern incarnation matches the swaras of Poorvi thaat, with shades of shuddha ma also permitted in some interpretations (e.g. SmmG; mdrS). Phraseological allies include Puriya (GMdNM; mdGmG) and Shree (NrS; rNdP), although tivra Ma is elongated more than komal re, and melodic development is mostly focused on the uttarang portions of madhya and taar saptak. Tanarang gives a pakad of P; MGMG, describing “shringar and separation pangs…a meend-pradhan raga creating a heavy atmosphere”. A perennially popular jod ingredient (e.g. Gauri Basant, Malti Basant, Dakshinatya Basant, & Basanti Kanada), and particularly cherished by Sikh traditions, with many great saints having composed hymns in it (as per one Sikh writer, Basant “encourages the mind to brush away its selfishness…there [is] hope and expectation of a new beginning, the start of a new cycle”).
–Venkatesh Kumar (2019)–
• Raag Basant Mukhari •
S-r-G-m-P-d-n-S
Blending the poorvang of Bhairav with the uttarang of Bhairavi, Basant Mukhari bears the imprints of multiple musical cultures. While its main modern inception is traceable to S.N. Ratanjankar’s eclectic Carnatic borrowings, some also link it to the near-extinct Raag Hijaz, itself derived from Arabic maqam. Scale-congruent forms turn up across the Islamic world.
–Shahid Parvez (2014)–
• Raag Basanti Kanada •
S-r-G-mM-P-D-nN-S
[summary]
–Arun Dravid (1984)–
• Raag Bhairav •
S-r-G-m-P-d-N-S
Revered as the primary raga of Lord Shiva, Bhairav takes its name from Kala Bhairava (‘fearsome form’) – an apocalyptic manifestation of the deity fabled to have cut off one of Brahma’s five heads to silence his arrogance. Renditions reflect the gravity of this ancient lore, depicting Shiva’s tandav (‘dance of destruction’) with wide-roving motions and dense oscillations on re and dha. Shares its seven swaras with Kalingada and Gauri.
–Rupak Kulkarni (2019)–
• Raag Bhairav Bahar •
S-rR-gG-m-P-D-nN-S
A ten-toned multi-jod raga, Bhairav Bahar’s descent blends the melodic signatures of several disparate ragas – although, as per Darbhanga Dhrupad vocalist Premkumar Mallick, flavours of Bhairav should dominate. Bose gives a vadi–samvadi of ma–Sa, while also mentioning the existence of an alternate ‘double-Dha’ version (thus allowing for the use of every swara position except tivra Ma). Also see a rundown of renditions selected by Rajan Parrikar.
–Apoorva Gokhale (2018)–
• Raag Bhairavi •
S-r-g-m-P-d-n-S
Probably the most prominent raga in the entire Hindustani canon, Bhairavi (‘awe, terror’: after the Fifth Avatar of the Mother Goddess) is a concert-closing staple. Unique in its chromatic flexibilities, the raga may span the full swara spectrum, allowing for a multitude of moods in the hands of a master. Long linked to the dawn hours, it also enjoys fame in filmi and other fusions – while being swara-congruent with Bilaskhani Todi and Asavari Komal re.
–Venkatesh Kumar (2019)–
• Raag Bhankari •
S-r-G-mM-P-D-N-S
A mega-mix of several ragas, Bhankari originates with Ramashreya Jha ‘Ramrang’, guru of Rajan Parrikar – who describes it as a “tantalizing melody, blend[ing] facets of Bhatiyar, Jait, Bibhas, and Deshkar while retaining an aesthetic coherence in the end product”. Also appears to draw from Marwa, although recordings are vanishingly rare beyond Ramrang’s originals.
–Ramashreya Jha ‘Ramrang’ (~1990s)–
• Raag Bhatiyar •
S-r-G-mM-P-D-N-S
A dawn raga fabled to have been created by Raja Bhartruhari, a mythical King of Ujjain said to have abdicated from his life of material wealth and romantic pleasure to pursue a path of ascetic devotion. Somewhat resembling a ‘vakra Marwa with Pa’, Bhatiyar omits or limits re and Ni in aroha – with, as per Deepak Raja, “a centre of melodic gravity in the mid-octave region, but tilting towards the upper tetrachord”. Some perceive an anxious, foreboding character, but the raga’s subtleties can produce many moods.
–Mita Nag (2014)–
• Raag Bhatiyari Bhairav •
S-r-G-m-P-D-N-S
[summary]
–Ramashreya Jha ‘Ramrang’ (2007)–
• Raag Bhavmat Bhairav •
S-r-gG-m-P-d-nN-S
[summary]
–Kumar Gandharva (~1970s)–
• Raag (Chatuswari) Bhavani •
S-R-m-D-S
Distinguished by allowing only four swaras (‘chatu’=four, ‘swara’=tones), Bhavani’s symmetrical shape is akin to a ‘Durga no Pa’. Its intriguing surtar sparsity necessitates a multipolar approach to melodic resolution, tempting a murchana-like refocus towards the triads available from Re (RmD: minor) and ma (mDS: major). Associated with the mid-20th-century experiments of Gwalior vocalist Narayanrao Vyas (who pointed his renditions towards the Bilawal-ang), with others (such as Abhirang) continuing in this vein today.
–Narayanrao Vyas (~1960s)–
• Raag Bheem •
S-R-gG-m-P-D-n-S
Near-identical to Gaoti, Bheem is distinguished by its allowance of komal ga in taar saptak. Tanarang notes that “in uttarang, komal ni is always rendered [via a] meend from Sa, as a kanswar like GmP, (S)nS…Similarly in Avroh, ni is generally skipped like SP/DP“. The vakra GmRS is taken instead of mGRS. (n.b. Parrikar notes the existence of a separate Kafi-thaat Bheem.)
–Veena Sahasrabuddhe (1999)–
• Raag Bhimpalasi •
S-R-g-m-P-D-n-S
Associated with the invigorating warmth of the late afternoon sun, Bhimpalasi evokes multiple shades of shringara (‘romantic love, erotic desire’). Thought to have arisen from an archaic union between Bheem and Palas, the raga calls for direct, passionate melodic outpourings, balancing a deft pentatonic ascent with the symmetry-inducing addition of Re and Dha going down. Shares its swara set with Bageshri, Shahana, Desi, and several others.
–Kushal Das (2010)–
• Raag Bhinna Shadja •
S-G-m-D-N-S
[summary] nearly Kaushik Dhwani
–Kishori Amonkar (1989)–
• Raag Bhupali •
S-R-G-P-D-S
Hailed for its structural simplicity, Bhupali is often the first raga taught to Hindustani students. While the same Major Pentatonic scale form is shared by countless global cultures, India’s incarnation (named for Madhya Pradesh’s Bhopal region) presents its own quirks – invoking tranquillity and home-bound reassurance with interlinked sliding motions and emphatic resolutions. Shares its five swaras (if not its phraseologies) with Deshkar and Jait Kalyan.
–Hariprasad Chaurasia (1996)–
• Raag Bhupali Todi •
S-r-g-P-d-S
A captivating audav raga said to symbolise spiritual purity, which essentially runs along the lines of ‘what if all Bhupali’s chal swaras were set as komal rather than shuddha?’ (SRGPDS > SrgPdS). Most renditions are poorvang-dominant, drawing from the Todi-ang as well as reshaping phrases from Bhupali, Bilaskhani Todi, and other allied forms (given the uniqueness of its swara set, there is little danger of over-trespass). Often presents a major-ish harmonic flavour, in part as the only ascending chromatic resolutions on offer are the S>r and P>d sangati – strengthening both these latter swaras (and thus drawing attention to the dSg maj. triad vs. the SgP min. triad).
–Harjinderpal Matharu (2009)–
• Raag Bibhas •
S-r-G-P-d-S
[summary]
–Shruti Sadolikar (1992)–
• Raag Bihad Bhairav •
S-r-gG-m-P-d-nN-S
A ‘double-Ga, double-Ni’ creation of Bhairav-loving vocalist Kumar Gandharva (also see Bhavmat Bhairav & Rati Bhairav). Bose describes how “the projection of the raga is done mainly around Sa…the aroha is similar to Jogiya [SrmdPdS: also Gunakri], and it has a small portion of Shivmat Bhairav” [e.g. rgrS], giving pakad such as Srm; GrS rrS; nSS; rg grS; nrrS. Gandharva’s classic renditions mix extended uttarang-bounded explorations with emphatic resolution lines which reintroduce the komal re (e.g. PDnSr, r\S). Also recorded to great effect by his son Mukul Shivputra, who turns to darker melodic shades in a slower, more poorvang-focused interpretation.
–Kumar Gandharva (~1970s)–
• Raag Bihag •
S-R-G-mM-P-D-N-S
Created via the artful grafting of tivra Ma onto a Bilawal-oriented base, Bihag contains a wealth of melodic possibilities. Long linked to late evening festivities, its meend-laden tendencies are explored with symmetrical articulations and fluid resolution phrases, guided by nuanced swara hierarchies which may display significant gharana-to-gharana variance. Swara-congruent with multiple ragas, including Chayanat, Hameer, Nand, Gaud Sarang, and Khem Kalyan.
–Bharat Bhushan Goswami (2014)–
• Raag Bihagara •
S-R-G-m-P-D-nN-S
[summary]
–Ashwini Bhide-Deshpande (2016)–
• Raag Bihagda •
S-R-G-m-P-D-nN-S
[summary] sounds essentially the same as Bihagara *
–Ulhas Kashalkar (2000)–
• Raag Bihari •
S-R-G-m-P-D-N-S
[summary]
–Shruti Sadolikar (2012)–
• Raag Bilaskhani Todi •
S-r-g-m-P-d-n-S
A hallowed form, Bilaskhani Todi is fabled to have been created by Bilas Khan: son of Tansen, the legendary composer of Emperor Akbar’s court. On trying to sing Todi at his father’s funeral wake, Bilas found himself so grief-stricken that he mixed up the swaras – however, his panic was allayed on witnessing the corpse slowly raise up one hand in approval of the new tune. Swara-congruent with Bhairavi and Asavari Komal re.
–Kiranpal Singh (2006)–
• Raag Bilawal •
S-R-G-m-P-D-N-S
Approximates the Western Major Scale, thus taking an ‘all-shuddha’ sampurna swara set – and selected by the great V.N. Bhatkhande as the titular raga of Bilawal thaat – although its popularity has declined in the century since (partly in favour of prakritis such as Tilak Kamod and Gaud Malhar). Dha and Ga assume vital roles (although Dha should not be a nyas), and ma is sometimes omitted in ascent – while the inclusion of komal Ni brings shades of Alhaiya Bilawal (…some say the ragas are indistinguishable). With possible origins in Veraval, Gujarat, the raga features prominently in Sikh history – with hundreds of shabads set to the raga by Guru Nanak, Guru Amar Das, Guru Ram Das, Guru Tegh Bahadur, and other saints (one Sikh writer describes the raga’s mood as “an overwhelming feeling of fulfilment, satisfaction and joy…like laughing out loud, there is no planning or ulterior motive”). Traditionally linked to the morning hours, and the hot summer sun.
–Bhimsen Joshi (1995)–
• Raag Champak •
S-R-G-m-P-D-nN-S
A seldom-heard neighbour of Khambavati, distinguished (often very subtly) by stronger use of shuddha ma, and sometimes involving a Gm\S catchphrase. Both ni swaras are used, with the komal introduced via vakra avroh motions (e.g. SRn). Named after a huge evergreen tree species with fragrant yellow-orange flowers, used in perfumery and featured in many myths and legends from Indian history (including a famous tale of a dishonest champak: “Sage Narada went back to the tree and cursed it for lying. He said that its flowers must never again be used in the worship of Lord Shiva…and also cursed the Brahmin, saying that he would be born as a demon…”).
–Roshan Abbas Khan (~2010s)–
• Raag Chandni Bihag •
S-G-mM-P-D-nN-S
A speciality of the Rampur khayal gharana, which introduces the tense Ma–ni sangati to the basic framework of Bihag, further accentuated by a weak or absent Re – leaving two ‘4-row’ clusters (GmMP & DnNS), arranged symmetrically. Parrikar recounts the “enchanting tonal formulations” of his guru Ramrang’s rendition (passed down by his own guru Bholanath Bhatt, who in turn learned it from sarangi legend Bundu Khan) – while Ramrang’s Abhinava Geetanjali volumes give a chalan of SNSGmG, GmPDnS, nDPDNSNP, MPDnSnDP, GmG. Further information is hard to come by, although Shashank Maktedar has also performed it on occasion.
–Ramashreya Jha ‘Ramrang’ (~1990s)–
• Raag Chandni Kedar •
S-R-G-mM-P-D-nN-S
[summary]
–Budhaditya Mukherjee (2016)–
• Raag Chandrakauns •
S-g-m-d-N-S
Chandrakauns is a spacious raga of relatively modern origin, only becoming distinct from divergent strains of ‘shuddha Ni Malkauns’ by around the mid-20th century. This ni-for-Ni replacement removes much of Malkauns’ symmetry and intervallic balance, with the chromatic leading-tone resolution (Ni>Sa) bringing more prominence to the role of both swaras. Due to these sharper tensions, it is often played at faster tempos than its parent.
–Ranjani & Gayatri (2015)–
• Raag Chandrakaushiki •
S-R-g-m-d-nN-S
An invention of sitarist Nikhil Banerjee, seemingly combining Chandrakauns and Kaushiki. Expanding on a Malkauns base, the Kaunsi Kanada-like shuddha Re opens up a broader array of intervals to and from the twin-Ni positions – with the komal dha playing a similarly vital role below. (n.b. While some online sources refer to the raga as having been “created by Ali Akbar Khan in the classroom…in 1977-78”, I can find nothing to back this up).
–Nikhil Banerjee (~1970s)–
• Raag Chandramadhu •
S-g-M-P-n-S
An angular pentatonic form conjured up by vocalist Amir Khan only a short time before his untimely death in a 1974 car accident – indeed, it is unclear if he ever formally named his new creation (I’ve seen it referred to as ‘Bhushwati’ and ‘Amarpriya’, and at least two posthumous releases just list it as ‘Untitled Raga’). A detailed RMIC thread discusses several plausible origin theories, generally linking the raga’s genesis to an intricate murchana process involving Chandrakauns and Madhukauns: it is prakriti with the latter, and Khan may well have made no practical distinction between the pair – however, given the general sparsity of information, it is unclear which recordings count as ‘true’ renditions. Bewitching in its oddities (‘Dhani tivra Ma‘ / ‘Minor Pentatonic #4‘).
–Amir Khan (1974)–
• Raag Chandranandan •
S-R-g-m-P-d-nN-S
Chandranandan (‘moonstruck’) is a modern classic, created by Ali Akbar Khan in a spare studio moment via spontaneously blending concepts from the Kaunsi family. The recording sold wildly – but, when concert audiences called out for the raga, he found that he had forgotten how to play it. The sarod master’s paradox-laden path of rediscovery is a truly curious tale…
–Ali Akbar Khan (1973)–
• Raag Charukeshi •
S-R-G-m-P-d-n-S
Adopted from Carnatic music, Charukeshi calls for wide-open melodic exploration, favouring long melodies which wind around themselves while visiting the furthest reaches of all three octaves. Like many Southern scales, it is often used as a canvas for reshaping and recolouring ideas from adjacent ragas, while itself presenting an odd marriage of major and minor.
–Shahid Parvez (2012)–
• Raag (Shuddha) Chaya •
S-R-G-mM-P-D-nN-S
[summary]
–Soumya Chakraverty (2018)–
• Raag Chaya Malhar •
S-R-G-m-P-D-N-S
Profiled by Parrikar as “a compound melody formed by joining elements of Chaya [particularly its characteristic P\R swoop] to…the Malhar raganga signature [mRm\RP]…The nyas on Pa is important…[whereas] an inapposite nyas on Re or undue brightening of ma may tilt the development towards Nat Malhar”. Listen to his guru Ramrang’s rendition, seasoned by a prominent P\R antara meend.
–Bhimsen Joshi (1960s)–
• Raag Chayanat •
S-R-G-mM-P-D-N-S
A longstanding combination of Chaya and Nat, creating (as per Tanarang) an “attractive, sweet, and emotionally swaying” mood – the latter in particular summoned via ‘simple vakra’ phrases such as DNDP; RGRS. The Pa–Re sangati is vital, and shuddha ma is stronger than tivra Ma – with the raga inviting a range of expressive ornament patterns (including a prominent P\S slide to commence descents). Raja notes that Chayanat has now largely supplanted both its parents in popularity.
–Abhisek Lahiri (2011)–
• Raag Dagori •
S-R-G-m-P-D-N-S
Dagori draws from Bilawal thaat, featuring prominent use of Ni and characteristic slides between ma and Re. Possibly invented by Jaipur-Atrauli founder Alladiya Khan (and still near-exclusively performed by singers of that gharana), some consider the raga to be a Bilawal–ang interpretation of the now-lost Deepak (Tansen’s legendary fire raga). Dagori’s name also resembles that of the Daguribani Dhrupad…although it is unclear whether this is just a coincidence. Further information welcome!
–Manjiri Asnare-Kelkar (2012)–
• Raag Dakshinatya Basant •
S-r-G-m-P-D-N-S
[summary]
–Anuradha Kuber (2009)–
• Raag Darbari •
S-R-g-m-P-d-n-S
Darbari has been described as “the emperor of ragas, and the raga of emperors”. Its majestic tones famously echoed across the marble floors of Mughal palaces in centuries past, bringing solemn relief to kings, warlords, and diplomats alike. Consequently, renditions tend to retain a grave, reverential patience, laden with heavy, vocalistic ornaments and turns. Swara-congruent (if sruti subtleties are ignored) with Adana, Jaunpuri, and the allied Kaunsi Kanada.
–Ulhas Kashalkar (2011)–
• Raag Darjeeling •
S-r-g-m-P-d-n-S
Unveiled by Niladri Kumar in a 2014 Taj Mahal tea commercial, launching a new Darjeeling-themed range described in marketing materials as “definitely our most premium offering” (Niladri: “I composed [it] in honour of the superlative flavour”). Status as a ‘real raga’ (rather than just a Mishra Bhairavi) is highly dubious – and usually I’d just ignore anything emanating from a corporate marketing scheme: but I’ll make an exception here (…and, much as I intuitively hate all advertising, I’ve gotta give props to Taj Mahal for some real raga-infused gems over the years: ‘Wah Taj!’).
–Niladri Kumar (2020)–
• Raag Deen Todi •
S-r-g-m-D-n-S
A near-extinct raga of uncertain origin, Deen Todi takes an ‘Ahiri no Pa’ form. Best preserved via an astonishing rendition by Kamalesh Maitra on the tabla tarang (a semicircle of 13 sruti-tuned dayan drums), accompanied by a multiphonic cluster of tanpura drones (tuned DnrS). Parveen Sultana has also sung it live, and seems to have taught it to students too – but today, Deen Todi has largely been subsumed by the swara-congruent Parameshwari.
–Kamalesh Maitra (1996)–
• Raag Deepak •
(S-R-G-m-P-D-nN-S)
Strictly speaking, Deepak is a ‘lost raga’, known to us through its status as Tansen’s fabled fire-bringing melody – said to have set off uncontrollable blazes when he sung it with full force at Emperor Akbar’s royal palace (…and requiring Megh to extinguish it). But, while its original swaras have been lost to the winds of time, many have sought to reignite the spirits of these ancient tales – with three disparate Deepak varieties having developed in recent generations: Bilawal-ang, Poorvi-ang, and Khamaj-ang (although, given the reimaginative nature of such projects, interpretations can vary wildly even within these three categories). Tantalisingly, while the Deepak of Tansen’s era is hardly likely to have just ‘disappeared’, we will never really know which modern ragas may have absorbed its essences.
–Ghulam Mustafa Khan (2002)–
• Raag Des Malhar •
S-R-G-m-P-D-nN-S
A well-established fusion of the pastoral-themed Desh and the rain-bringing Malhar, spanning the full swara sets of both via characteristic movements such as RmP, PNSRmGR; mPnDP, PNS. Steadily popular with both instrumentalists (e.g. Ali Akbar Khan’s many renditions) and singers (e.g. the Bodas clan’s duets). Dinkar Kaikini’s daughter Aditi Upadhya recounts the inspiration behind the Agra exponent’s own stellar bandish: “He reached the Hanging Gardens on Malabar Hill in Bombay…Looking up, he saw clear blue sky and, looking down, the clouds were so low the trees were hidden…Inspired, he immediately worked out a lyric (‘Dark, dark, looms the canopy of clouds, They gather, swell, and shower their heavy bounty…Trees and vines, garbed green sprouts, smile and sway in the wind…’).
–Dinkar Kaikini (1974)–
• Raag Desh •
S-R-G-m-P-D-nN-S
Intimately connected to Indian national identity, Desh gives melodic direction to the famous patriotic anthem Vande Mataram, as well as soundtracking dozens of Rabindrasangeet. Associated with the second quarter of night, renditions tend towards the sweet and romantic, borrowing liberally from thumri, hori, and other folk forms. Re is prominent – and the raga shares its swaras with Champak, Alhaiya Bilawal, Arun Malhar, & Tilak Malhar.
–Ravi Shankar (1994)–
• Raag Deshkar •
S-R-G-P-D-S
Typically summarised as the ‘other raga with Bhupali’s swaras’, Deshkar shuffles the same five tones to produce a mood suited more to the morning than evening hours. Taking a vadi-samvadi of Dha–Ga (as opposed to Bhupali’s Ga-Dha), the raga is uttarang-dominant, with a melodic focus on vakra movements in madhya and taar saptaks. Pa exerts gravity as the predominant nyas, and Re (prominent in Bhupali) is often rendered weakly or skipped in ascent. Parrikar provides definitive tonal sentences of P, PGPD, DP, PDGP and PDGPGRS, RSDS, SGPD, DP.
–Venkatesh Kumar (2016)–
• Raag Desi •
S-R-g-m-P-D-n-S
[summary]
–Aditya Modak (2020)–
• Raag Dev Gandhar •
S-R-gG-m-P-d-n-S
[summary]
–Vidyadhar Vyas (1982)–
• Raag Devata Bhairav •
S-r-gG-m-P-d-N-S
A double-Ga Bhairav derivative, introduced by Agra gharana pioneer Azmat Hussain Khan ‘Dilrang’. As per Parrikar, the raga is distinguished from its parent with “the introduction of [an] avroh pragoya via the komal ga [mgrS]”. Some artists include subtle touches of komal ni, including Jitendra Abhisheki – who sings a madhyang-focused bandish (to me, somewhat reminiscent of Omkar Dadarkar’s Jogkauns rendition in its dPm(G)m phrase and twin-Ga interminglings). Abhirang, one of only a few others to have recorded it, offers pakad including gmPd, NS, mPGm & PGm, Pmg, rrS – with his analysis supplemented by Dilrang’s son Vajahat Hussain Khan, who explains that his father invented the raga “spontaneously…before the beginning of a 1944 concert at Kolhapur’s Deval Club…with Alladiya Khan, Faiyaz Khan, Vilayat Khan, and many other seasoned musicians of Maharashtra in the audience”, adding (in contrast to Parrikar) that “there is no glimpse [of] Bhairavi…the komal ga and SRGmP [phrase] have to be handled very carefully…[to] exclude Bhairavi and Shivmat Bhairav”.
–Jitendra Abhisheki (1985)–
• Raag Devgandhari Todi •
S-rR-gG-m-P-d-n-S
A modification of Dev Gandhar, devised by Agra vocalist S.N. Ratanjankar via the addition of a Todi-like komal re – thus filling the entire Sa-to-ma swara space. Also recorded by his student K.G. Ginde, who extends this hemitonic run (and leans further into Todi’s geometries) by including touches of shuddha Ni, also reworking some Darbaric uttarang movements (nSRn\d; mPn\d nS). And a 2008 Ramdas Bhatkal article commemorating C.J.R. Bhatt (another Ratanjankar disciple), notes that “An approximation [of] a swara would never satisfy him…I recall learning with him a rarely-sung raga, a creation of Ratanjankar’s, Devgandhari Todi – that required different shades of each swara…He had neither learnt this raga from his guru, nor heard anyone sing this melody. On the strength of his [instruction], I even made bold to present this raga at a concert attended by many stalwarts…”. Also listed as sung by B.D. Wadikar on A.I.R. at 9:04am on Feb 24th 1973.
–K.G. Ginde (1980s)–
• Raag Devgiri Bilawal •
S-R-G-m-P-D-nN-S
[summary]
–Ramashreya Jha ‘Ramrang’ (1989)–
• Raag Devranjani •
S-m-P-d-N-S
Stretched by the emptiness of a vast S-m poorvang jump, Devranjani is formed by removing the Re and Ga from Bhairav. Abhirang offers up both ‘shuddha Ni’ and ‘double Ni’ variants, with the former appearing to be predominant – while Bhatkhande’s early 20th-century works discuss the importance of the ascending phrase Sm, mP as a launchpoint into the denser uttarang space. Seemingly of Carnatic origin (despite differing from the South Indian form of similar name) – and, though tantalising, remains rare.
–Abhijith Shenoy ‘Abhirang’ (2021)–
• Raag Devshri •
S-R-M-P-n-S
An intriguing-but-uncommon audav raga resembling ‘Megh tivra Ma’ (or ‘Vachaspati no Ga/Dha’). Its unique swara set is distinguished by a disbalance in how Sa and Pa are ‘enclosed’ by the swaras above and below (nSR: ‘2-2’, MPn: ‘1-3’) – offering curious contrast with the symmetrical order of the RMn ‘equilateral triangle’ (a ‘4-4-4’ augmented triad). Described by Tanarang as “straightforward to sing, and easily expandable in all three octaves”.
–Prakash Vishwanath Ringe (2000)–
• Raag Dhanashree •
S-R-g-m-P-D-n-S
[summary]
–Ulhas Kashalkar (2015)–
• Raag Dhani •
S-g-m-P-n-S
Despite its ‘Minor Pentatonic’ scale form enjoying global popularity as the predominant mode of blues, rock, pop, and countless other guitar-driven genres, Dhani is comparatively rare as a raga in its own right – with its swara set mostly being heard as the ‘aroha of Bhimpalasi’ rather than in isolation (…it may be the least-performed of all five Bhupali murchanas: and only joined this set in the modern era, having previously allowed Re in avroh). Renditions are relatively ‘rule-free’ within the bounds of the five swaras, although komal ga and ni tend to assume a natural prominence. Often described as ‘lively, playful, sprightly’, in spite of its ‘all-komal’ status.
–Shahid Parvez Khan (2016)–
• Raag Dhavalshree •
S-r-G-M-P-dD-N-S
[summary]
–Kishori Amonkar (1996)–
• Raag Din ki Puriya •
S-r-G-M-d-N-S
[summary]
–Sanjeev Abhyankar (2002)–
• Raag Durga •
S-R-m-P-D-S
Beguiling in its pentatonic simplicity, Durga (‘invincible, impassable’) is inextricably tied to visions of the Mother Goddess: depicted in Hindu lore as a destroyer of demons and protector of the faithful. Despite these ancient associations, the raga is of relatively recent Carnatic import, only gaining broad acceptance among Northern rasikas around the mid-20th century. Swara-congruent with Jaldhar Kedar and Shuddha Malhar.
–Venkatesh Kumar (2010)–
• Raag Durgawati •
S-R-m-P-D-n-S
[summary]
–Hariprasad Chaurasia (1997)–
• Raag Enayetkhani Kanada •
S-R-gG-m-P-d-nN-S
Invented by sitarist Vilayat Khan as a tribute to his father, legendary Imdadkhani innovator Enayet Khan (although when the raga first surfaced, circa 1989, he was calling it ‘Vilayat Khani Kanada’ instead…). As per fellow Imdadkhani sitarist-scholar Deepak Raja’s ever-excellent analysis, the raga runs along the lines of “Darbari with the addition of two ‘alien swaras’ in the ascent [shuddha Ga & Ni]…Phrases with the alien swaras are always sandwiched between typical Darbari phrases, and blend [into] the new melodic entity with a distinctive emotional flavour”. He also details how Darbari character “is preserved by keeping the raga firmly anchored in the lower half of the melodic canvas, with very sparing development in the upper tetrachord or higher octave”. Khan’s most prominent recording is laden with long, ponderous meend, which occasionally render the adjacent ni-Ni positions consecutively. Seemingly unperformed by anyone besides its creator.
–Vilayat Khan (2001)–
• Raag Gagan Vihang •
S-R-G-m-P-D-N-S
As per Ocean of Ragas, “composed by Pandit Dinkar Kaikini…in Gagan Vihang we find features of Bihag, Savani, Nand, and Mand, although the raga maintains its independent melody…[via] unique phrases such as: SRPGm, GmRS, NDmP“. The Agra vocal innovator (who is also tabla player Yogesh Samsi’s father) recorded it several times, but few have followed.
–Dinkar Kaikini (1987)–
• Raag Gandhari •
S-rR-g-m-P-d-n-S
[summary]
–Shashwati Mandal (2017)–
• Raag Gangeshwari •
S-G-m-P-d-n-S
Like Parameshwari and Rangeshwari, Gangeshwari (‘Lord of the Ganges River’) was created in 1968 via murchana rotation of Ravi Shankar’s Kameshwari (itself dreamed up during a car ride through Bengal). Its unique swara set, lacking in reflective symmetries, most closely resembles a ‘no Re’ version of either Charukeshi or Basant Mukhari (or alternatively, ‘Gopika Basant shuddha Ga’). Like the rest of its murchana quartet, Gangeshwari’s phraseology remains uncodified and unusually open, with little risk of over-trespassing the bounds of other ragas.
–Ravi Shankar (1972)–
• Raag Gaoti •
S-R-G-m-P-D-n-S
Sarodiya Rahul Bhattacharya describes the late-afternoon Gaoti as “an underutilised gem…a pleasant, fulfilled feeling…like enjoying a perfume without actually knowing why it’s so nice”. Also known as ‘Gawati’, the raga is often considered near-identical to Bheem (although strictly speaking, Bheem can be distinguished by its occasional use of komal ga in taar saptak). Straightforward audav ascents are balanced by sampurna descending lines which tend to run in ‘paired’ sequences (e.g. nS, DP, mP, Gm, RS).
–Acharya Jayanta Bose (2013)–
• Raag Gara •
S-R-gG-m-P-D-nN-S
[summary]
–Ravi Shankar (2001)–
• Raag Gaud Malhar •
S-R-G-m-P-D-nN-S
[summary]
–Kishori Amonkar (2003)–
• Raag Gaud Sarang •
S-R-G-mM-P-D-N-S
[summary]
–Kumar Mardur (2014)–
• Raag Gaudgiri Malhar •
S-R-g-m-P-n-S
[summary]
–Pandit Jasraj (~1980s)–
• Raag Gauri •
S-r-G-m-P-d-N-S
Described by Deepak Raja as “difficult to render in its purity”, Gauri is associated with viraha shringara (‘the piety arising from the separation of lovers’). The raga had at least two distinct forms as far back as the 16th century, and continues to manifest in several variations – spanning a main Bhairav-ang ‘shuddha ma‘ incarnation to various Poorvi-ang ‘tivra Ma’ renditions (often “treacherously close to Puriya Dhanashree“) In the former, mandra Ni is a prominent nyas (in Kalingada style), while re and dha should not be paused on – while some omit Ga and dha in aroha. Considered a sandhiprakash raga, but (unlike Bhairav) best suited to the dusk hours.
–Sharad Sathe (1995)–
• Raag Gauri Basant •
S-r-G-M-P-d-N-S
[summary]
–Kumar Gandharva (1974)–
• Raag Gaurimanjari •
S-rR-G-mM-P-d-nN-S
An intricate ten-toned raga created by Ali Akbar Khan via blending ideas from across the Lalit–Gauri spectrum (Gaurimanjari: ‘Bouquet of Gauris’) – notable for its winding melodic motions and dense, crowded swara-space (some renditions employ all specific positions except komal ga). Its core form also possesses the ultra-rare property of rotational symmetry (i.e. the interval sequence can be rotated to produce an identical copy of the original, in this case 180o: its 5th murchana). This is arguably of somewhat little consequence given the raga’s overall complexity – but Khan and others (notably his student Brij Bhushan Kabra) have found fruit in exploring its wide-open melodic geometries, which allow for many subtle sub-symmetries.
–Ali Akbar Khan (1970s)–
• Raag Gopika Basant •
S-g-m-P-d-n-S
A hexatonic raga of bewitching beauty, Gopika Basant matches the swaras of ‘Asavari no Re’ (or ‘Malkauns add Pa’) – while also inviting shades of Bhairavi from ga upwards. The Sa–ma sangati is strong, and, as noted by Jairazbhoy, descents can mirror the Malkauns scheme of “parallel conjunct tetrachords by oblique use of the Pa” (e.g. in ndm, Pg, mgS: where Pa separates two phrases of identical intervallic shape). While its origins lie in the Carnatic Gopikavasantham, renditions now match more closely to the allied Hindolavasantham via the absence of Re – although the raga’s Hindustani incarnation remains rare (to my ears, a bewildering state of affairs…).
–Acharya Jayanta Bose (1990)–
• Raag Gorakh Kalyan •
S-R-m-P-D-n-S
A spacious, folksy raga of the late evening, Gorakh Kalyan (named for Gorakhpur in Uttar Pradesh) has fabled links to Saint Gorakhnath – a yogi and mystic-musician said to have travelled throughout the Subcontinent in search of spiritual wisdom and sonic enrichment. Some include only four swaras in aroha (SRmD), leaving room for winding, ambiguous lines in the descent.
–Praveen Sheolikar (2018)–
• Raag Gujiri Todi •
S-r-g-M-d-N-S
A popular Todi variant named for its association with Gujarat, India’s Westernmost state. Linked to the morning hours, it takes a similar swara set to the main Todi, distinguishing itself by omitting Pa throughout. Dagarvani beenkar Bahauddin Dagar chooses to intone the raga’s Sa with a slightly higher sruti than that of the tanpura, adjusted in accordance with the sun’s daily arc (see non-zero Sa). Pleasingly, Gujiri Todi is also an exact murchana of Jog (i.e. if you rotate Gujiri Todi so that dha becomes the ‘new Sa’, you get Jog’s full swara set).
–Parveen Sultana (2007)–
• Raag Gunakri •
S-r-m-P-d-S
Taking the swaras of ‘Bhairav no Ga/Ni’, Gunakri – described by AUTRIM as “serious and peaceful” – brings out the character of its parent raga via an oscillating komal re, and movements patterns including Sd, dP and SdSr, rS (although Jairazbhoy prefers to analyse it via the geometries of Basant Mukhari). Bose gives a neat ‘rising-falling’ pakad of mPd, mrS, which is often handled with long slides (e.g. d/S; m\r), while Vidyadhar Vyas’ version seasons the raga’s audav core with slight touches of Ga and Ni (helping to avoid shades of Jogiya’s aroha, which takes the same swaras). Not the same as Gunkali (…although renditions of each are sometimes mistitled as the other).
–Vidyadhar Vyas (1997)–
• Raag Gunji Kanada •
S-R-gG-m-P-d-n-S
A Gwalior gharana favourite which blends Malgunji and Kaunsi Kanada, principally via inserting the former’s RnSRG, Gm phrase into the broader framework of the latter – although some sources also cite the vital influences of Adana and Bahar (e.g. mDnS). Modern renditions tend to take the komal dha, although a shuddha-Dha variant has also circulated in the recent past (also turning up as an ornamental kanswar). Ocean of Ragas lists it as a creation of pioneering vocalist and educator Vishnu Digambar Paluskar (1872-1931), with a handful of other artists having added it to their concert repertoire over the years since (notably including Ali Akbar Khan, Nikhil Banerjee, Pandit Jasraj, & Purbayan Chatterjee).
–Pandit Jasraj (1994)–
• Raag Gunkali •
S-r-m-P-d-S
[summary]
–Kedar Bodas (2015)–
• Raag Hameer •
S-R-G-mM-P-D-N-S
[summary]
–Budhaditya Mukherjee (2017)–
• Raag Hansa Narayani •
S-r-G-M-P-N-S
[summary]
–Bismillah Khan (1996)–
• Raag Hansadhwani •
S-R-G-P-N-S
Hansadhwani translates to ‘call of swans’ – a creature with rich cultural associations in the Subcontinent (Saraswati, goddess of music and learning, is often depicted atop a swan, said to symbolise purity, discernment, and the process of breathing). Originally an import from Carnatic music, the raga’s pentatonic simplicity invites the listener towards the calm of nature, with a strong vadi-samvadi pairing of Sa–Pa retaining a central reassurance amidst what Jairazbhoy describes as “an inherently unbalanced scale”.
–Parveen Sultana (2018)–
• Raag Hanskinkini •
S-R-gG-m-P-D-n-S
[summary]
–Soumik Datta (2018)–
• Raag Harikauns •
S-g-M-D-n-S
Among the strangest of pentatonic scales, Harikauns resembles ‘Madhukant no Re/Pa’ or ‘Madhukauns with Dha-for-Pa’ (or ‘Malkauns with the middle two swaras raised’) – forming a ‘diminished square’ of 3-semitone jumps (SgMD) plus a (symmetry-destroying) komal ni. Aside from a natural uttarang focus, the raga allows for near-complete freedom of motion – but presents inherent challenges to any who attempt it, with all swaras except ga being imperfect, and the dissonant Ma–ni sangati left in stark focus (a Telegraph India critic once described it as the “one of the ugliest and most difficult to sing ever conceived”, in a nevertheless glowing review of an Ulhas Kashalkar concert: mis-heard as ‘Holikauns’). While most effective renditions I can find rely heavily on the ornamental flexibility of the human voice (e.g. Amir Khan, Prabha Atre, Jitendra Abhisheki), my all-time favourite has to be Nasir Ahmed’s incredible electric mandolin take, which turns instead to the rapid scale-navigatory capabilities afforded by his smaller fretboard.
–Nasir Ahmed (2003)–
• Raag Hem Bihag •
S-R-G-m-P-D-N-S
Often cited as an invention of Ravi Shankar, Hem Bihag was in fact devised by his teacher Allauddin Khan – in fact, Shankar & Ali Akbar Khan chose it to open a tribute concert just a few weeks on from their guru’s 1972 death at the reputed age of 110 (below: “we begin with a creation of his, a night raga…”). Khan never himself recorded it (although you can hear him exploring both its parent melodies on the violin: Hem & Bihag) – meaning that modern renditions instead bear the imprints of Shankar, Khan, and Nikhil Banerjee‘s various takes, which tend to exhibit a weak Dha, strong Ni, and the avoidance of Re in aroha. The ‘Hem’ in the name refers to Hemant – another Khansaab invention which builds from a Bhinna Shadja base – rather than Khem Kalyan (although some sources mention another, older ‘Hem Bihag’, which does draw from the latter raga).
–Ravi Shankar & Ali Akbar Khan (1972)–
• Raag Hemant •
S-R-G-m-P-D-N-S
[summary]
–Abhishek & Praashekh Borkar (2019)–
• Raag Hemavati •
S-R-g-M-P-D-n-S
[summary]
–Hariprasad Chaurasia (1998)–
• Raag Hemshri •
S-g-m-P-nN-S
A night raga created by Gwalior composer and vocalist Vishwanath Rao Ringe ‘Tanarang’, essentially equivalent to ‘Tilang komal ga’. In his own words: “the mood [is] light…a very sweet melody that manifests readily in the following combinations [e.g. SgmPm, gmPnPNNS; PNSnP; PNSgNS]”. Re (already rare in Tilang) is banned entirely, while the raga is distinguished from Dhani by the use of double-Ni.
–Vishwajeet Ringe (2020)–
• Raag Hindol •
S-G-M-D-N-S
[summary]
–Pandit Jasraj (2002)–
• Raag Hindolita •
S-G-mM-P-D-N-S
[summary]
–Bhimsen Joshi (2003)–
• Raag Hussaini Kanada •
S-R-g-m-P-D-n-S
[summary]
–Pandit Jasraj (~1990s)–
• Raag Hussaini Todi •
S-R-g-m-P-D-nN-S
[summary]
–Vinayak Athavale (~1990s)–
• Raag Imratkauns •
S-R-G-m-d-n-S
Devised by Imdadkhani sitar and surbahar virtuoso Imrat Khan, with a swara set resembling ‘Charukeshi no Pa’. This mid-scale space gives a strong poorvang–uttarang separation, amidst the strange geometric regularity of the consecutive ‘2-2-2-2-2’ run (dnSRG: just a ma-to-Ma nudge from matching the whole-tone scale, a.k.a. Sehera). Ga is strong throughout, often setting up Re via slow meend, and Khan’s renditions often bring out hints of a ma–murchana. His former student Chris Stephens compares it to the near-prakriti Mohankauns: “The main difference is that Mohankauns sometimes sprinkles a komal ga in the mix, and Imratkauns uses shuddha Re more frequently…Imratkauns is most similar to ‘Rageshri komal dha’, and Mohankauns to ‘Malkauns with shuddha Ga’…”. Also performed by Imrat’s son Wajahat Khan on sarod, who reportedly describes his interpretation as “a combination of Malkauns and Rageshri”.
–Imrat Khan (2011)–
• Raag Jaijaiwanti •
S-R-gG-m-P-D-nN-S
A much-beloved but highly intricate raga, featuring both variants of Ga and Ni. Dhrupadyas hold NSDNR as the essential pakad (with some bemoaning the loss of the “slow glide from Ga to Re…as the distinguishing feature of Jaijaiwanti”) – while modern performers tend to ‘enclose’ the komal ga in the avroh phrase RgR, preferring the shuddha in most other scenarios. Uttarang movements may take after Sorath (mPNS) or Bageshri (mDnS), and the Pa–Re sangati is highlighted with long slides. Described by Debasmita Bhattacharya as offering “strongly ambiguous elements” (who told me that she chose it for a Darbar concert in London “to see how complex ragas would communicate to a complex audience…I’m happy it was raining yesterday, as Jaijaiwanti has some feelings of water in it”). Also popular in filmi, Gurbani, and beyond – and adapted into Carnatic music as ‘Dwijavanthi’.
–Bismillah Khan (1968)–
• Raag Jaijaiwanti Nat •
S-R-gG-m-P-D-nN-S
[summary]
–Bhimsen Joshi (1997)–
• Raag Jait •
S-rR-G-P-D-S
[summary]
–Hariprasad Chaurasia (2010)–
• Raag Jait Kalyan •
S-R-G-P-D-S
[summary]
–Mallikarjun Mansur (1968)–
• Raag Jaitashree •
S-r-G-M-P-d-N-S
[summary]
–Ulhas Kashalkar (2015)–
• Raag Jaiwanti Todi •
S-r-g-m-P-D-n-S
[summary]
–Pandit Jasraj (~1990s)–
• Raag Jaldhar Kedar •
S-R-m-P-D-S
[summary]
–K.G. Ginde (1985)–
• Raag Jansammohini •
S-R-G-P-D-n-S
Broadly running along the lines of ‘Kalavati plus shuddha Re’ (especially in avroh), Jansammohini is a captivating Carnatic import. Explored to powerful effect across vocal and instrumental music, the raga’s robust geometries are capable of housing everything from bhajan (Ashwini Bhide-Deshpande’s Ganesh Vandana) and freewheeling sitar solos (Ravi Shankar’s rhythmic take) to epic, full-length santoor duets (Shivkumar & Rahul Sharma’s astonishing Real World rendition: speaking as a santoor player, this is probably the most vivid sound quality I’ve ever heard from the instrument). Still surprisingly rare, Jansammohini seemingly has no prakriti ragas despite its relatively simple structure (‘Khamaj no ma’). Aside from the clear imprints of Kalavati, the raga allows for relatively free exploration – with artists naturally tending to emphasise the wide P-G jump, and descending whole-tone run between G-R-S-n (e.g. GRG, RSR, SnS, DPG…).
–Shivkumar Sharma (1996)–
• Raag Jaun Bhairav •
S-rR-gG-m-P-d-nN-S
A jod raga fashioned by Agra vocalist Jagannathbuwa Purohit ‘Gunidas’ (also the creator of Jogkauns and Swanandi), combining Jaunpuri and Bhairav. Described as having a “crowded swara-space”, with both komal and shuddha variants of Re, Ga, and Ni on display. Abhijith Shenoy ‘Abhirang’ offers catchphrases including SRmP; rNSdP; dmPG; PgRS; GmrS.
–Ram Marathe (1979)–
• Raag Jaunpuri •
S-R-g-m-P-d-n-S
Jaunpuri is a late morning raga, likely originating in the Sultanate-era music of Jaunpur in Uttar Pradesh. Rajan Parrikar describes it as an “Asavariant”, closely tied to the phraseologies of the Asavari family: some see the ragas as indistinguishable, while others consider Jaunpuri to take more ‘rounded’ melodic shapes, and permitting greater use of ni in both directions. Adopted into Carnatic music as ‘Jonpuri’ – and also turns up on a couple of ultra-early Hindustani recordings (Gauhar Jan in 1902, and Abdul Karim Khan in 1905).
–Kushal Das (2021)–
• Raag Jayant Malhar •
S-R-gG-m-P-D-nN-S
[summary]
–Ulhas Kashalkar (2018)–
• Raag Jhinjhoti •
S-R-G-m-P-D-n-S
A staple of thumri, tappa, and other light-classical styles, Jhinjhoti is a hearty raga of the late evening and early night hours. Particularly beloved by instrumentalists, it is a favourite of Hindu weddings and other celebratory gatherings, offering a reassuring familiarity via balancing Durga-like ascending phrases with a special treatment of shuddha Ga in descent. Congruent with several Khamaj ragas, e.g. Kambhoji, Khambavati, & Gaoti.
–Shivkumar Sharma & Hariprasad Chaurasia (1999)–
• Raag Jog •
S-gG-m-P-n-S
A lively late-evening raga, Jog translates as ‘state of union’ (derived from the Sanskrit concept of yogi). Its oddly bluesy harmony presents an enchanting almost-familiarity to uninitiated listeners, mixing major and minor flavours via a characteristic ‘Gmg zigzag’ phrase in descent (which, via the wonders of convergent evolution, suggests the structure of a 7#9 ‘Hendrix chord’). Curiously, Jog is also an exact murchana of Gujiri Todi.
–Rupak Kulkarni (2018)–
• Raag Jogeshwari •
S-gG-m-D-n-S
[summary]
–Ravi Shankar (1980)–
• Raag Jogeshwari Pancham •
S-gG-m-P-D-n-S
Created by Gwalior educator and vocalist Vishwanath Rao Ringe ‘Tanarang’, by adding touches of avroh Pa to Ravi Shankar’s Jogeshwari (itself a blend of Jog and Rageshri). Jogeshwari’s basic phraseology is retained, while also allowing further extensions into Jog’s territory (all its swaras are now present). In Tanarang’s own analysis: “while descending from Dha to ma, Pa should not be used. Pa is mostly used as [a] kan-swar…like m(P)m or Gm(P)mgS”.
–Vishwanath Ringe (2000)–
• Raag Jogiya •
S-r-m-P-d-N-S
[summary]
–Amjad Ali Khan (2016)–
• Raag Jogkauns •
S-gG-m-P-d-N-S
Created by vocal master Jagannathbuwa Purohit Gunidas in the 1940s, Jogkauns is often summarised as ‘Jog plus Chandrakauns’ – although his original inception in fact drew more from the melodies of Malkauns than the latter raga. Gharana-blending singer Kumar Gandharva soon picked up on the new form, quickly garnering acclaim from audiences across North India.
–Omkar Dadarkar (2018)–
• Raag Kabiri Bhairav •
S-r-G-m-P-dD-nN-S
[summary]
–Mallikarjun Mansur (1968)–
• Raag Kafi •
S-R-g-m-P-D-n-S
Perhaps more like an compendium of folk tunes than a fully codified raga framework, Kafi offers unusual chromatic freedoms. Almost always appearing in mishra (‘mixed’) form, renditions will often borrow from affiliated ragas as well as semi-classical styles such as thumri, dadra, and ghazal. Lyrical material tends towards the romantic, matched by free-roaming melodies. Swara-congruent with many ragas, e.g. Bageshri, Bhimpalasi, and Shahana.
–Kala Ramnath (2019)–
• Raag Kalashri •
S-R-G-m-P-D-n-S
Introduced by Kirana legend Bhimsen Joshi by combining Kalavati and Rageshri to span the full seven swaras of Khamaj thaat. His renditions draw mostly from the former raga, setting a strong Pa and recurring GPD movements in an audav aroha, with Rageshri’s imprint mainly evident in the vakra avroh phrase GmRnS (which helps to distinguish it from the nearby Jansammohini). Described by the Komal Rishabh blog as “beautiful and playful…[Joshi] was extremely fond of [it], and named his house in Pune ‘Kalashri’…”. You can even watch him teach it to his daughter Shubhada Mulgund in a heartwarming baithak video – while Amjad Ali Khan has also recorded a stellar sarod version in tribute to the great Pandit.
–Bhimsen Joshi (1971)–
• Raag Kalavati •
S-G-P-D-n-S
A playful pentatonic form, neatly structured as a stack of ‘regularly narrowing’ intervals (4>3>2>1 semitones). The wide, triadic poorvang and clustered uttarang combine to give a reassuring momentum, with increasing melodic urgency as you go higher (a ‘triple jump followed by a sprint’). Consequently, performances of the raga tend towards energy and rhythmic charge.
–Rahul Sharma (2002)–
• Raag Kalingada •
S-r-G-m-P-d-N-S
Kalingada shares the same seven swaras as Bhairav, but approaches them differently – preferring a straighter, less ornamented character (as per Rajan Parrikar: “Kalingada has a flippant mien…far less austere than Bhairav. The Ga and Pa are advanced to positions of influence, [and] the swara-lagav is mostly linear, without the andolit treatment prevalent in Bhairav.”)
–Kaushiki Chakraborty (2018)–
• Raag Kambhoji •
S-R-G-m-P-D-n-S
[summary]
–Wasifuddin Dagar (2009)–
• Raag Kameshwari •
S-R-M-P-D-n-S
Dreamed up by Ravi Shankar during a car journey to Chengali in March 1968. As explained by his wife Sukanya: “While riding in the car, he conceived the nucleus of a melodic form that he later developed and called Kameshwari. By using the old murchana and swara bheda system, he [also] discovered three more ragas at the heart of Kameshwari” (= Parameshwari, Gangeshwari, and Rangeshwari). The SRMP sequence places his scale close to Saraswati, as well as resembling ‘Vachaspati no Ga’ or ‘Gorakh Kalyan tivra Ma’.
–Ravi Shankar (1972)–
• Raag Kamod •
S-R-G-mM-P-D-N-S
An intricate raga which draws together elements from many others (Tanarang: “this dynamic melody is rather complex…one can see clear shadows of Malhar [SmRP], Hameer [GmDP], and Kalyan [SRS, SDP], together with glimpses of Kedar [MPDP] and Chayanat [PDPS, SRS]”). Distinguishing sequences include RRP, GmPGmRS, the taar Sa is accentuated with long P/S slides, and Ga is generally omitted in aroha (aside from the vakra phrase GmRS) – while Jairazbhoy notes that “tivra Ma can only be approached from above, and is always followed by a higher note“. Bor discusses the raga’s possible origins as a pre-16th-century blend of Gaud and Hameer, once held to have the power to heal the sick, also mentioning that “in several ragmala paintings, Kamod is portrayed as a semi-nude female ascetic with a rosary in her hand”.
–Veena Sahasrabuddhe (1999)–
• Raag Kaunsi Kanada •
S-R-g-m-P-d-n-S
The modern form of Kaunsi Kanada is often summarised as a blend of two ragas: ‘Malkauns on the way up, and Darbari on the way down’. But the whole is more than the sum of these parts, with both sides interacting to offer labyrinthine moods – described by Debasmita Bhattacharya as one of “heavy introspection: like a man who weeps inside, but can never show his tears”.
–Debasmita Bhattacharya (2017)–
• Raag Kaushik Dhwani •
S-G-m-D-N-S
[summary]
–Rashid Khan (2012)–
• Raag Kedar •
S-R-mM-P-D-N-S
An early night raga, Kedar is associated with heat (Tanarang: “there is much thermal energy in this melody…hence it is regarded as the ragini of Deepak“: Tansen’s fire-bringing raga). Often seen as particularly subtle, complex, and hard-to-perform – partly due to its curiously wide aroha jump from Sa to tivra Ma (a full tritone: essentially half the saptak space). Ga is omitted throughout, while some renditions may also include touches of komal Ni.
–Suchismita Das (2017)–
• Raag Kesari Kalyan •
S-R-G-P-D-N-S
[summary]
–Abhijith Shenoy ‘Abhirang’ (2020)–
• Raag Khamaj •
S-R-G-m-P-D-n-S
Among the most popular light-classical ragas, Khamaj’s core form matches the ultra-versatile Mixolydian Mode of Western music. Despite being chosen by Bhatkhande as the titular raga of Khamaj thaat, renditions will usually draw on melodic combinations from outside these main seven swaras. Jairazbhoy discusses the evolution of these ‘mishra‘ features as a natural outgrowth of the raga’s “disjunct tetrachords”: the lower of which has a major third (S-G), and the upper a minor third (P-n) – arguing that it is only natural for artists to ‘swap’ this intervallic pattern by adding a komal ga (S-g) and shuddha Ni (S-N), giving SRgGmPDnNS (an effect strengthened by a strong Pa in the tanpura). Described by Tanarang as “light and enthralling, but not sedate…with a husky voice that emits the emotion of painful separation with khatkas…decorated with diverse thumri styles of Punjab, Lucknow, and Benares” (n.b. while the song isn’t really in any particular raga, Khamaj is probably the ‘best fit’ for George Harrison’s sitar lines on The Beatles’ Within You Without You: also see an intriguing 2006 sitar/sarangi/dilruba/tabla cover by the Beatles’ Magic Orchestra).
–Ulhas Kashalkar (2011)–
• Raag Khambavati •
S-R-G-m-P-D-n-S
[summary]
–Kesarbai Kerkar (~1950s)–
• Raag Khat •
S-rR-gG-m-P-dD-n-S
Often described as one of the most complex Hindustani forms, Khat (Sanskrit: ‘six’) is said to combine six different ragas – although it remains unclear precisely which they may be. Asavari is often taken as a foundation (e.g. through a strong komal dha), with other flavours drawn from Bhairavi, Gandhari, Khamaj, Sarang, Desi, and beyond (the renditions I’ve listened to collectively span all swara positions except tivra Ma). AUTRIM notes that “generally the komal Re is used only [as] grS. Shuddha Ga and komal Ga are used in the ascending and descending phrases respectively. However, the usage of Dha depends upon the particular phrase: for example, both Dhas could be used in the [aroha] like dnP and DnP”. Somewhat uncommon on the concert circuit – and seemingly the near-exclusive preserve of vocalists.
–Manjiri Asanare-Kelkar (2016)–
• Raag Khat Todi •
S-r-g-mM-P-d-nN-S
In Parrikar’s summary, Khat Todi is described as an “uncommon [double-Ma] prakar…mostly sung by Jaipur-Atrauli and Agra musicians. In the main body of Todi, a small phrase of Khat is introduced” (i.e. the raga is more like ‘Todi seasoned with Khat’ rather than a more evenly-weighted combo). He cites two different Khat strains used by Jaipur-Atrauli vocalists (“Anandrao Limaye uses the gmPdnP cluster, whereas Mallikarjun Mansur co-opts RmRP”).
–Shalmalee Joshi (2017)–
• Raag Khem Kalyan •
S-R-G-mM-P-D-N-S
A rare-but-charming raga of the Agra gharana, Khem Kalyan is a Kalyan variant with Hansadhwani-like touches. Deepak Raja recounts decoding its phraseology from old recordings, having failed to find a guru who knew it: “This was no ordinary raga…not even just another rare raga. It was a special raga, perhaps beyond reach without a guru…The raga has a quadratonic ascent of stark tonal geometry (SGPNS), with each swara having equal weightage. The descent is hyper-heptatonic (SNDPMmGRS), with tivra Ma being deployed subliminally (as in Shuddha Kalyan), and shuddha Dha deployed subliminally (as in Bihag). The zigzag phrasing [is] essential…”.
–Ashwini Bhide Deshpande (2018)–
• Raag Khokar •
S-G-m-P-D-nN-S
[summary]
–Mallikarjun Mansur (~1980s)–
• Raag Kirwani •
S-R-g-m-P-d-N-S
Despite its congruence with the Western Harmonic Minor, Kirwani has origins in the Carnatic Keeravani: thus leading to its popularity in North-South jugalbandi duets, offering artists from both cultures a rich expanse of shared melodic territory. Like many Southern imports, Kirwani is comparatively ‘open’, allowing for the near-free use of all seven swaras in both ascent and descent.
–Nikhil Banerjee (1986)–
• Raag Kukubh Bilawal •
S-R-G-m-P-D-nN-S
[summary]
–Ulhas Kashalkar (1993)–
• Raag Lachari Kanada •
S-R-gG-m-P-nN-S
[summary]
–Latafat Hussain Khan (~1960s)–
• Raag Lachari Todi •
S-R-gG-m-P-dD-n-S
[summary]
–Amjad Ali Khan (2022)–
• Raag Lakshmi Kalyan •
S-R-G-mM-P-D-N-S
[summary]
–Deepak Kshirsagar (2019)–
• Raag Lakshmi Todi •
S-rR-gG-m-P-dD-n-S
A complex multi-melodic blend named after the Hindu goddess of power, beauty, prosperity, and good fortune (Lakshmi: ‘she who leads to the goal’) – which imports the movements of several other ragas into a general Todi framework. Abhirang’s breakdown discusses “shades of Jaunpuri (RmPSdP; nSRndP), Dev Gandhar (RnSRGm), Gaud (SRGmGm; mGRGm), Kafi (RmPDnS), Gandhari (RmPdmPg; rgrS), and Asavari komal re (mPdPgrS)”, while his own bewitching rendition follows an unconventional up-down path, with double-Re throughout, double-Ga in aroha only, and double-Dha in avroh only. Also recorded by B.R. Deodhar – and close to Bahaduri Todi.
–Abhijith Shenoy ‘Abhirang’ (2021)–
• Raag Lalit •
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Lalit is an oddly-shaped sunrise raga. Among the most influential forms in Hindustani history, its distinctive ‘double Ma, no Pa’ structure has a malleable ambiguity, capable of conjuring flavours ranging from “sadness and anguish to the serene and devotional”. The evenly-weighted treatment of the twin ma swaras leads some to see the tivra as a kind of ‘komal Pa’.
–Jyoti Hegde (2014)–
• Raag Lalit Pancham •
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[summary]
–Kishori Amonkar (2000)–
• Raag Lalita Gauri •
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Created by Jaipur-Atrauli vocalist Kesarbai Kerkar, who often employed it as a concert centrepiece. Blending Lalit and Gauri via, respectively, “the close coupling of the two madhyams…[and] appropriate clusters on and in the vicinity of the mandra Ni”, the raga typically takes a shuddha Dha (giving a Poorvi inclination), but can use the komal variant instead (e.g. Vinayakrao Patwardhan’s Bhairav-tilted take). Popular in the Agra gharana.
–Manjiri Asnare-Kelkar (1997)–
• Raag Lalita Sohini •
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A blend of the early-morning Lalit and late-night Sohini, with the melodies of the latter dominating the aural impression, reportedly created by Agra vocalist Yunus Ahmed Khan in the mid-20th century. Raja notes that “while Sohini is a resident of the upper tetrachord, Lalit is a resident of the lower tetrachord. Thus, the resulting melodic entity opens up the entire scale for exploration, and exposes it to dilution with elements of Puriya [and] Marwa” – also discussing the broader definitional challenges posed by sarodiya Bahadur Khan’s more loosely-bounded interpretations (“because of his decision to restrict the Lalit fragrance [mM] to the descending expression, the melodic form [is] dominated by the unified and undifferentiated melodic field of the Marwa parent scale”). Also prakriti with Malti Basant.
–Bahadur Khan (1986)–
• Raag Lanka Dahan Sarang •
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[summary]
–Rajeev Taranath (2009)–
• Raag Lankeshwari •
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[summary] =Malgunji/Bageshri/Rageshri blend
–Chand Khan (~1960s)–
• Raag Lilavati •
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[summary]
–Dilshad Khan (1995)–
• Raag Madhukant •
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An oddly-shaped and thinly-analysed sampurna raga, taking the shape of ‘Madhuvanti’s poorvang + Kafi’s uttarang’ (or ‘Kafi tivra Ma’). Analysed by Jairazbhoy in 1971: “Ragas in which the Pa has a leading note [MP], while the Sa does not [nS]…Madhukauns and Madhukant are both modern ragas which appear to be evolving rapidly…Madhukant [is] unstable as it also has a tivra Ma and komal ni”. Despite this discussion, I can’t trace a single ‘Madhukant’ recording, and Jairazbhoy doesn’t reveal his listening materials – although the SRgMPDnS scale is prakriti with Hemavati (imported from the 58th Carnatic melakarta), as well as a pair of ultra-rare forms: Mukundapriya (“created by Mukund Vishnu Kalvint…by changing shuddha Ni to komal Ni in Madhuvanti”), and Saraswati Chandra (resurrected by Abhirang from a 1984 edition of Sangeet magazine: “aroha Saraswati, avroh Madhukauns, and a shade of Madhuvanti. Also, the [Re-murchana] gives a subtle hint of Basant Mukhari” [see the Kirwani set for more rotational partners]).
–Abhijith Shenoy K ‘Abhirang’ (2020)–
• Raag Madhukauns •
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A curious ‘Dhani tivra Ma’ scale introduced by vocalist Amir Khan via a ‘ma-murchana’ of Chandrakauns. Full of inescapable tension, with 3 of the 5 swaras being imperfect, and the disbalancing Ma–ni sangati on stark display. Sometimes considered identical to Khan’s Chandramadhu, created as part of the same rotational process: but, while both take the same swaras, Madhukauns seems to place less emphasis on the tivra Ma, focusing more on the Kauns-bound nSg range instead – as per Ibrahim Ali’s excellent Amirkhani Khayal site, “Ni, salient in Chandrakauns, becomes [Chandramadhu’s] Ma” (i.e. Khan may have seen Chandramadhu as a ‘direct murchana’ of Chandrakauns, and Madhukauns as a more ‘inherently’ Kaunsi raga: also hinted at by their names). Rao’s 1965 Raga Nidhi also notes a second form of ‘Madhukauns’, apparently absent from today’s ragascape (a Madhuvanti–Malkauns jod with swaras SgMDnS), with both scales being enclosed by the rare heptatonic ‘Madhukant’ (SRgMPDnS). To add further confusion, Khan’s raga is different to Madhurkauns, although both were invented around the same time.
–Amir Khan (~1960s)–
• Raag Madhumad Sarang •
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[summary]
–Kaivalya Kumar Gurav (2015)–
• Raag Madhuradhwani •
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As per Parrikar, “Durga Khamaj-thaat…is also known [as] ‘Madhuradhwani’…This is not a popular raga, its base eroded by the popularity of Rageshri…[but] is part of the Dagar family repertoire”. While some renditions may skip Ni in ascent, traditional Dhrupad presentation will render it shuddha in aroha and komal in avroh – along with a strong Ga, and a Bageshri-style ma–Dha sangati balanced by phrases such as SmG; mDNS; mmGS. Also proximate to Bhinna Shadja and Kaushik Dhwani (=’Khamaj no Re–Pa‘).
–Nemai Chand Boral (~1960s)–
• Raag Madhurkauns •
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A fascinating yet sparsely-recorded creation of Kirana vocalist Prabha Atre, matching the swaras of ‘Malkauns double-Ga’ (or ‘Nandkauns no Pa’). The addition of shuddha Ga maintains the original Ga–ni symmetry axis of Malkauns, while also giving more gravity to shuddha ma via upward resolutions of G/m – a feature which forms the basis of most renditions (e.g. Gm, ndm, GGm), sometimes even tempting the feel of a ‘ma-murchana’ (=Hemshri). Komal ga is mostly used in Sa-bound concluding phrases, in which shades of Jogkauns may appear (mGmgS). Intriguingly, I came across an old Atre recording entitled ‘Surya Kauns’, which I’m 99% certain is a ‘proto-Madhurkauns’: the bandish and melodic character are near-identical to a ‘shuddha Ga only’ version of her spellbinding Madhurkauns performance at Darbar 2014, around half a century later (…she may have renamed her rework due to the existence of other, unrelated species of ‘Suryakauns’). Prakriti with Mohankauns, despite their contrasting emotional characters – and not to be confused with Madhukauns, another audav vocal raga created around the same time by Amir Khan.
–Prabha Atre (2014)–
• Raag Madhuranjani •
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[summary]