S-r-g-m-D-n-S A mellifluous modern form created by Ravi Shankar in 1968 (…via a murchana rotation of Kameshwari: itself the product of backseat travel boredom in Bengal). While somewhat resembling a ‘komal re Bageshri’, Parameshwari’s hexagonal structure is ripe for open-ended experiments, summoning its own colours and tensions – and, despite its young history, has already garnered significant […]
• Raag Parameshwari •
• Raag Vachaspati •
S-R-G-M-P-D-n-S Vachaspati (‘lord of speech’) is a recent import from the South, adapted from Carnatic music’s 64th melakarta scale around the mid-20th century by artists including Ravi Shankar and Ali Akbar Khan. Consequently, its Northern form is still in a state of flux, with few firm melodic conventions aside from staying within the scale’s bounds […]
• Raag Pilu •
S-R-gG-m-P-dD-nN-S Perhaps the most emblematic thumri raga, Pilu’s highly permissive melodic framework functions more like an alliance of amorous folk tunes than a ‘rigorously codified’ form (Bhatkhande recounts that some artists of his early 20th-century era resisted Pilu’s classification as a raga altogether). While relatively rare on the khayal stage, it enjoys wild popularity across […]
• Raag Miyan ki Malhar •
S-R-g-m-P-D-nN-S Derived from the Sanskrit for ‘banishing uncleanliness’, the Malhar family is inextricably linked to the rejuvenating effects of rain. The main raga of this lineage is named ‘Miyan ki Malhar’ for its fabled connections to Miyan Tansen, the great composer of Emperor Akbar’s 16th-century royal court, who is said to have sung it to […]
• Raag Megh •
S-R-m-P-n-S Among the oldest surviving members of the Malhar family, Megh (‘cloud’) is said to have saved the life of the Miyan Tansen himself. Legend holds that the great composer’s powerful rendition of the fire-bringing Deepak caused the oil lamps in Emperor Akbar’s 16th-century royal palace to ignite and burn uncontrollably – and, soon, all […]
• Raag Malkauns •
S-g-m-d-n-S Among the most revered ragas in the Hindustani pantheon, Malkauns (‘he who wears serpents as garlands’) combines structural simplicity with a nuanced mythological ethos. Said to have been composed by the goddess Parvati to soothe Shiva’s murderous rage, in turn inspired by his wife Sati’s fiery death, its ‘all-komal‘ swara set is associated with […]
• Raag Kaunsi Kanada •
S-R-g-m-P-d-n-S Kaunsi Kanada is often oversimplified as a blend of two ragas: ‘Malkauns (or Pancham Malkauns) on the way up, and Darbari on the way down’. But, as ever, the whole is far more than the sum of these parts, with multiple facets of both ragas interacting to offer labyrinthine moods – described by Senia-Shahjahanpur […]
• Raag Kalavati •
S-G-P-D-n-S A playful pentatonic form, neatly structured as a stack of ‘regularly narrowing’ intervals (4>3>2>1 semitones). The wide, sparse poorvang (SG) and clustered uttarang (PDnS) combine to bring a reassuring momentum, with increasing melodic urgency as you go higher (a ‘triple jump followed by a sprint’). Most Kalavati performances tend towards energy and rhythmic charge […]
• Raag Kafi •
S-R-g-m-P-D-n-S Perhaps more like a compendium of interlinked folk tunes than a ‘formally codified’ raga framework, Kafi offers expansive freedoms. Typically appearing in mishra (‘mixed’) form, its free-roaming melodies may borrow from affiliated ragas as well as drawing on a wide range of light-classical styles such as thumri, bhajan, dadra, and ghazal. Lyrical material has […]
• Raag Jog •
S-gG-m-P-n-S A lively late-evening raga, Jog translates as ‘state of union’ (derived from the Sanskrit concept of yogi). Its oddly bluesy harmony presents an enchanting almost-familiarity to uninitiated listeners, mixing major and minor flavours via a characteristic ‘Gmg zigzag’ phrase in descent (which, via the wonders of convergent evolution, suggests the structure of a 7#9 […]
• Raag Jhinjhoti •
S-R-G-m-P-D-n-S A staple of thumri, tappa, and other light-classical styles, Jhinjhoti is a hearty raga of the late evening and early night hours. Particularly beloved by instrumentalists, its Khamaj-congruent swaras are a firm favourite at Indian weddings and other celebratory gatherings, offering a reassuring familiarity via balancing Durga-like ascending phrases with a special treatment of […]
• Raag Gorakh Kalyan •
S-R-m-P-D-n-S A spacious, folksy raga of the late evening, Gorakh Kalyan (named for the Gorakhpur region of Uttar Pradesh) has fabled associations with Saint Gorakhnath, an 11th-century yogi mystic-musician who is said to have travelled throughout the Subcontinent in search of spiritual wisdom and sonic enrichment. Despite its name, the raga’s modern form has no […]
• Raag Desh •
S-R-G-m-P-D-nN-S Intimately connected to Indian national identity, Desh gives melodic direction to the famous patriotic anthem Vande Mataram, as well as soundtracking dozens of Rabindrasangeet. Associated with the second quarter of night, renditions tend towards the sweet and amorous, with Deepak Raja noting clear divergence between ‘classicist’ and ‘romanticist’ treatments (the former is confined to […]
• Raag Darbari •
S-R-g-m-P-d-n-S Darbari has been described as “the Emperor of ragas, and the raga of Emperors”. Its majestic tones famously echoed across the marble floors of Mughal palaces in centuries past, bringing solemn relief to kings, warlords, and diplomats alike. Consequently, modern renditions tend to retain a grave, reverential patience, pairing pakad of dnP & gmR amidst […]
• Raag Charukeshi •
S-R-G-m-P-d-n-S Adopted from Carnatic music, Charukeshi (‘one with beautiful hair’) calls for wide-open melodic exploration, favouring long melodies which wind around themselves while visiting the furthest reaches of all three octaves. Like many Southern scales, it may be used as a canvas for reshaping and recolouring ideas from adjacent ragas (see avirbhav), while itself presenting […]
• Raag Chandranandan •
S-R-g-m-P-d-nN-S Chandranandan (‘moonstruck’) is a modern classic, created by Ali Akbar Khan in a spare studio moment via spontaneously blending concepts from the Kaunsi family (“Three minutes and it was finished…They asked me for the name, but I never thought of the name, I never thought about the notes. I just thought of my father and […]
• Raag Bilaskhani Todi •
S-r-g-m-P-d-n-S A hallowed form, Bilaskhani Todi is fabled to have been created by Bilas Khan: son of Tansen, the legendary composer of Emperor Akbar’s 16th-century durbar. On trying to sing Todi at his father’s funeral wake, Bilas found himself so grief-stricken that he mixed up the swaras – however, his panic was allayed on witnessing […]
• Raag Bhimpalasi •
S-R-g-m-P-D-n-S Associated with the invigorating warmth of the late afternoon sun, Bhimpalasi evokes multiple shades of shringara (‘romantic love, erotic desire’). Thought to have arisen from an archaic union between Bheem and the now-extinct Palas, the raga calls for direct, passionate melodic outpourings, balancing a deft pentatonic ascent (nSgmPnS: prakriti with Dhani) against the symmetry-inducing […]
• Raag Bhairavi •
S-r-g-m-P-d-n-S Probably the most prominent raga in the entire Hindustani canon, the dawn Bhairavi (‘awe, terror’: named after the Fifth Avatar of Mahadevi, the Mother Goddess) is a concert-closing staple. Unique in its chromatic flexibilities, the raga’s ‘Mishra Bhairavi’ form can span the full swara spectrum, allowing for a multitude of moods in the hands […]
• Raag Basant Mukhari •
S-r-G-m-P-d-n-S Effectively blending the poorvang of Bhairav with the uttarang of Bhairavi (SrGm; PdnS), Basant Mukhari’s complex history bears the imprints of multiple musical cultures. While its main modern inception is traceable to S.N. Ratanjankar’s eclectic Carnatic borrowings of the 1950s (also see Charukeshi: the same scale with komal re instead), many also explicitly link […]
• Raag Bageshri •
S-R-g-m-P-D-n-S An ancient raga of the late night, Bageshri is associated with ‘vipralambha’ – the profound shades of longing felt by a separated lover. These sentiments are reflected in its multipolar phraseology: artists may resolve towards Sa for a clustered, inward-turning feel (mgRS), or towards shuddha ma for a more open, expansive sound (DnSgm) – […]
• Raag Asavari •
S-rR-g-m-P-d-n-S An antique late morning raga, listed in lakshanagranthas as a ragini of Malkauns, Asavari’s modern incarnation comprises two disinct variants: an older, Dhrupad-rooted ‘komal re’ form, and a more recent set of ‘shuddha Re’ interpretations. Both forms of the raga call for complex connective motions and expressive alankar around dha, which some artists tune […]
• Raag Ahir Bhairav •
S-r-G-m-P-D-n-S Ahir Bhairav’s unique swara set is inextricably linked to visions of the Indian sunrise. While the raga’s poorvang matches that of the ‘main’ Bhairav (SrGm) its uttarang presents its own geometries, taking a shuddha Dha and komal ni (PDnS) in a manner closer the Kafi–ang (although many artists tune their Dha sruti closer to that of Bageshri […]
• Raag Prabhateshwari •
S-r-g-m-P-D-n-S A seldom-heard raga created by bansuriya Hariprasad Chaurasia, which (to my ears) resembles a blend of the morning Ahir Bhairav and the late night Bageshri. His student Rajendra Teredesai describes it as having “all the hues…beautiful, complex, yet spiritually uplifting…full of pathos and bhakti ras…a state of perpetual divine bliss”. Prakriti with Ahiri, the raga […]
• Raag Khamaj •
S-R-G-m-P-D-n-S Among the most popular light-classical ragas, Khamaj’s core form matches the ultra-versatile Mixolydian Mode of Western music. Despite being chosen by Bhatkhande as the titular raga of Khamaj thaat, renditions will usually draw on melodic combinations from outside these main seven swaras. Jairazbhoy discusses the evolution of these ‘mishra‘ features as a natural outgrowth […]
• Raag Madhurkauns •
S-gG-m-d-n-S A fascinating yet sparsely-recorded creation of Kirana vocalist Prabha Atre, matching the swaras of ‘Malkauns double-Ga’ (or ‘Nandkauns no Pa’). The addition of shuddha Ga maintains the original Ga–ni symmetry axis of Malkauns, while also giving more gravity to shuddha ma via upward resolutions of G/m – a feature which forms the basis of […]
• Raag Jogeshwari •
S-gG-m-D-n-S A low-high combination of Jog and Rageshri invented by Ravi Shankar and first released on a stellar 1980 album (although he was performing it at least 5 years before this: e.g. a 1975 rendition from an all-night concert in Varanasi). Jog’s strong shuddha Ga dominates the poorvang, while motions towards the uttarang revolve around Rageshri’s […]
• Raag Jansammohini •
S-R-G-P-D-n-S Broadly running along the lines of ‘Kalavati plus shuddha Re’ (especially in avroh), Jansammohini is a captivating Carnatic import. Explored to powerful effect across vocal and instrumental music, the raga’s robust geometries are capable of housing everything from bhajan (Ashwini Bhide-Deshpande’s Ganesh Vandana) and freewheeling sitar solos (Ravi Shankar’s rhythmic take) to epic, full-length […]
• Raag Harikauns •
S-g-M-D-n-S Among the strangest of pentatonic scales, Harikauns resembles ‘Madhukant no Re/Pa’ or ‘Madhukauns with Dha-for-Pa’ (or ‘Malkauns with the middle two swaras raised’) – forming a ‘diminished square’ of 3-semitone jumps (SgMD) plus a (symmetry-destroying) komal ni. Aside from a natural uttarang focus, the raga allows for near-complete freedom of motion – but presents inherent […]
• Raag Bairagi (Bhairav) •
S-r-m-P-n-S A pentatonic form introduced to the ragascape by Ravi Shankar in the 1940s, although the basic scale shape has likely been used in many guises throughout the ages. Its swara set – which concisely scatters interval jumps of 1, 2, 3, and 4 semitones – is describable as ‘Megh komal re’, while its melodies […]
• Raag Enayetkhani Kanada •
S-R-gG-m-P-d-nN-S Invented by sitarist Vilayat Khan as a tribute to his father, legendary Imdadkhani innovator Enayet Khan (although when the raga first surfaced, circa 1981, he was instead calling it ‘Vilayat Khani Kanada’…). As per fellow Imdadkhani sitarist-scholar Deepak Raja’s ever-excellent analysis, the raga runs along the lines of “Darbari with the addition of two […]
• Raag Meladalan •
S-r-g-mM-d-n-S A truly oddball creation I stumbled upon in Subbha Rao’s 1965 Raga Nidhi Vol. 3: “Meladalan and ‘Thatavidhwamasa’ are pseudo-names which Acharya Brahaspati…has given to a raga the identity of which [he] wants to keep unpublished for certain reasons. He points out, however, that it is an ancient raga which he wants to bring […]
• Raag Barwa •
S-R-g-m-P-D-nN-S An Agra gharana speciality, Barwa blends ideas from Kafi (mP, mgR; mPDNS), Sindhura (SRmP; Pg), and Desi (RPRg). The komal ga tends to be omitted in aroha, and ma is rendered deergha, while Re–Pa is often given as the vadi-samvadi. Traditionally associated with the late morning hours, the raga is one of many Kafi-allied […]
• Raag Bairagi Todi •
S-r-g-P-n-S Created by Ravi Shankar, Bairagi Todi replaces Bairagi’s shuddha ma with a Todi-intoned ati-komal ga, retaining the concise audav structure while presenting an odd mix of narrow and wide intervals. Sometimes matched with unusual talas (e.g. Shankar’s original is in Sade-Gyarah: a ‘fractional’ 11.5 matra cycle divided ‘4-4-2-1.5‘), the raga is explorable in all saptak, […]
• Raag Ahir Lalit •
S-r-G-mM-D-n-S Introduced by Ravi Shankar, drawing from the swara material of three morning ragas: Ahiri, Ahir Bhairav, and Lalit. As per Deepak Raja, “for most listeners, Ahir Lalit will be unable to escape the shadow of Ahir Bhairav over the Lalit facet of the raga…since Ahiri is heard mainly as a Bhairav / Ahir Bhairav […]
• Raag Tivrakauns •
S-g-M-d-n-S A one-off experiment by rare raga connoisseur Abhirang, formed by changing Malkauns’ shuddha ma vadi to its tivra variant. This shift renders both Sa and Ma ‘detached’ (i.e. with no swaras either 7 semitones above or below them: a property shared by only Harikauns and Sehera), meaning that conclusive resolutions towards the raga’s two […]
• Raag Madhukauns •
S-g-M-P-n-S A curious ‘Dhani tivra Ma’ scale introduced by vocalist Amir Khan via a ‘ma-murchana’ of Chandrakauns (listen to his sargam-demo of the process below). Full of inescapable tension, with 3 of the 5 swaras being imperfect, and the disbalancing Ma–ni sangati on stark display. Sometimes considered identical to Khan’s Chandramadhu, created as part of […]
• Raag Rasikpriya •
S-gG-M-P-nN-S A direct borrowing of Carnatic music’s 72nd melakarta scale: which, as the final position on the wheel, has all its swaras set to their highest available positions. In Hindustani music, the equivalent principle would produce Yaman (SRGMPDNS), but the South Indian system allows three variants for each of Re, Ga, Dha, & Ni, with […]
• Raag Madhusurja •
S-rR-mM-P-n-S A Kumar Gandharva creation, inspired by witnessing the plight of a goat as it was led past his house on the way to be sacrificed at a nearby Kali temple. To collate a few common tellings: “When the goat realises, it starts pleading to save its life. The vilambit bandish describes these prayers [‘bachaale […]
• Raag Ek Prakar ki Kauns •
S-gG-m-d-nN-S An invention of Imdadkhani sitarist Rais Khan (who, with a pleasing lack of pretention, named his new raga ‘a type of Kauns’). From Martyn Clayton’s excellent liner notes to a 1985 Navras recording: “Indeed an unusual raga…Rais Khan’s ‘Ek Prakar ki Kauns’ is based on Malkauns, but incorporates two extra notes [shuddha Ga & […]
• Raag Tulsikauns •
S-g-m-d-nN-S A barely-recorded creation of Maihar sitarist Kartik Kumar, matching the swara-set of ‘Malkauns double-Ni’ (or ‘Malkauns + Chandrakauns’). A consistently strong ma–murchana summons unmistakable flavours of the famous Western ‘Blues Scale’ (SgmMPnS), further accentuated by extended meend between the consecutive Ni positions (…I’ve used the exact same scale as a ‘modal sitar hack’ to […]
• Raag Mohankauns •
S-gG-m-d-n-S As recounted in The Hindu, Mohankauns “was spontaneously created by Ravi Shankar in 1949. On hearing of [Mohandas K.] Gandhi’s death, Pandit-ji was asked by All India Radio to play a piece dedicated to the Mahatma. On the spot, he created a variation of…Malkauns”. As well as the occasional use of shuddha Re, his […]
• Raag Gaurimanjari •
S-rR-G-mM-P-d-nN-S An intricate ten-toned raga created by Ali Akbar Khan via blending ideas from across the Lalit–Gauri spectrum (Gaurimanjari: ‘Bouquet of Gauris’) – notable for its winding melodic motions and dense, crowded swara-space (some renditions employ all specific positions except komal ga). Its core form also possesses the ultra-rare property of rotational symmetry (i.e. the […]
• Raag Patmanjari •
(S-rR-gG-mM-P-dD-nN-S) Said by some to be more of a ‘performance concept’ than a single raga, ‘Patmanjari’ translates as ‘Bouquet of Five Ragas’. Debate persists over whether the form should be interpreted as an open challenge to blend five ragas of an artist’s own choosing, or whether it entails five specific ragas – and, if so, […]
• Raag Sehera •
S-R-G-M-d-n-S Among the strangest of raga scales, Sehera’s six swaras are all spaced out in two-semitone jumps (akin to the Western Whole-Tone scale and the Carnatic Gopriya). The resulting symmetries summon a curious, centreless mood (also famous as the ‘dream sequence‘ of countless soundtracks) – best explored by sarangiya Sultan Khan, who described Sehera as “the […]
• Raag Shahana •
S-R-g-m-P-D-n-S A late night raga, Shahana (literally: ‘of royal demeanour’) is a close cousin of the more famous Bageshri, sharing the same swaras but focusing more on the use of shuddha Dha as a melodic endpoint. Usually classed as a member of the Kanada family, Deepak Raja notes that Shahana is linked in medieval texts to […]
• Raag (Brindabani) Sarang •
S-R-m-P-nN-S The Sarang raga lineage, often linked to 16th-century mystic-musician Swami Haridas, is also associated with snake-charming rituals of the past. Brindabani Sarang, named for Uttar Pradesh’s Vrindavan region, is the principal raga of this group – and is believed to have brought an incarnation of Krishna to earth when Haridas sung it for the […]
• Raag Salagavarali •
S-r-g-P-D-n-S A rare ‘Ahiri no ma’ scale, combining a Todi-like poorvang with an Ahir Bhairavic uttarang. As per Parrikar: “S.N. Ratanjankar conceived of this raga…ma is eliminated to yield the following contour: SrgPDnDS; SnDPgPrgrS. Brilliantly exploited by Jitendra Abhisheki in a celebrated natyageeta. Watch out for the injection of a vivadi dosha via tivra Ma”. […]
• Raag Rang Malhar •
S-R-g-mM-P-D-nN-S From my 2018 Darbar interview with Rupak Kulkarni: “Rang Malhar happened by chance. It was the rainy season, and I was playing in a monsoon festival. I was the last performer, and by the time my turn came then all types of Malhar family ragas had been played already. I thought I should come […]
• Raag Ramkali •
S-r-G-mM-P-d-nN-S Resembling ‘Bhairav with touches of tivra Ma and komal ni in avroh’, Ramkali is an early morning raga, often associated with Sikh saintly traditions (“the emotions in Ramkali are like those of a wise teacher disciplining their student, who is aware of the pain of learning…”). Though generally similar to Bhairav, Ramkali focuses more on madhya and […]
