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रागों की सूची
—Hindustani Ragalist—
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“There is confusion around defining ragas. To learn just one raga, you must also know five more along with it…like a game of hide-and-seek. In this way, each raga is a mirror of all Hindustani music.” (Parveen Sultana)
• Raag Abheri Todi •
S-rR-gG-m-P-d-n-S
Summarised by musicologist and critic Rajan Parrikar as “an obscure Todi variant, in which strands of Asavari and Khamaj are tied to the Todi-ang”. His guru Ramrang’s rendition of the raga revolves around phrases such as PmPm\g; mPn\d; SRnS; rnSRG, whereas Srikant Bakre’s take also visits the shuddha Dha (bandish transcribed in full below) – although further renditions are hard to definitively trace. While historical information is scant, the raga’s name is presumably linked to the near-congruent Carnatic Abheri (prakriti with Asavari thaat). Compare to other rare Todi ragas including Saheli Todi, Lakshmi Todi, Mangal Todi, and Adarangi Todi.
–Ramashreya Jha ‘Ramrang’ (~1990s)–
• Raag Abhogi •
S-R-g-m-D-S
A rare instance of an ‘audav Kanada’ raga, Abhogi somewhat resembles ‘Darbari no Pa/ni’ (or, if the Kanada component is de-emphasised, ‘Bageshri’s aroha without ni’). As per Tanarang, the raga’s capacity for Darbaric poorvang movements summons “a deep atmosphere” – while the ultra-sparse uttarang (empty save for Dha) presents performers with a curious creative challenge. Abhogi is a relatively recent Carnatic import, with Aarshin Karande noting that Kirana founder Abdul Karim Khan may have been the first to introduce it. Bor’s analysis highlights how artists may choose to omit Re in ascent, and approach ga with an ornament from above (e.g. m\g) – and that mgRDS can sometimes act as a direct substitute for the gmRS Kanada phrase. Witness the astonishing Darbhanga Dhrupad duet by Premkumar & Prashant Mallick, as well as Premkumar’s full-length album rendition – plus Hariprasad Chaurasia’s sublime short-take for Joep Bor’s Raga Guide (which, to my ears, resembles Shakti’s Ma No Pa: composed by Zakir Hussain, who has accompanied Hariprasad’s Abhogi renditions many times). Also see the distinct ‘Abhogi Kanada’ variants detailed below (SRgmPDnS) – and compare to Bhavani (the only other raga I can trace which restricts its uttarang to the generic swaras ‘ma-Dha-Sa’).
–Premkumar Mallick (2014)–
• Raag Adana •
S-R-g-m-P-d-n-S
Though prakriti with Darbari, Adana favours a ‘lighter, flittering’ treatment: often summoned via skipping ga in aroha, limiting ornaments on komal dha, and focusing more on madhya and taar saptak (exemplified in sarodiya Budhaditya Mukherjee’s concise rendition: gat transcribed below). Ga is reintroduced via the gmRS Kanada signature in avroh – and some artists may assign a subtly higher sruti to the komal ni, especially in taans and faster passages (see ‘sakari’). The raga is depicted in numerous ragmalas, often with imagery of ascetics lost in meditative pose – and Joep Bor’s Raga Guide discusses the “Sahasarasa: an anthology of 1004 Dhrupad song-texts attributed to the early 16th-century poet-composer Nayak Bakshu, compiled at the time of Emperor Shah Jahan, [which] contains no less than 35 songs in Raag Adana”. Also see a rundown of jhaptal compositions by Kovid Rathee (who casts it as “a raga for the brave and valorous”)- as well as the related Sughrai, Gunji Kanada, & Mudriki Kanada.
–Buddhadev Dasgupta (1999)–
• Raag Adarangi Todi •
S-r-g-mM-P-d-nN-S
A double-ma, double-ni Todi variant linked to 18th-century composer Naimat Khan ‘Sadarang’ and his nephew Feroze Khan ‘Adarang’, who served at the court of Mughal Emperor and prolific arts patron Muhammad Shah. While the raga’s historical lineage remains half-sketched, Ali Akbar Khan took to performing it later in his career. Sometimes given the alternate title of ‘Turki’ or ‘Turusk’ Todi (a name which appears in the 13th-century Sangita Ratnakara – although it is unclear what connection this may have to the modern form). Also see Mangal Gujari, said to overlap with the same historic lineage – as well as Firozkhani Todi, also linked to the great Feroze Khan.
–Ali Akbar Khan (~1980s)–
• Raag Adbhut Kalyan •
S-R-G-D-N-S
An uncommon Kalyan variety, named Adbhut (‘Wondrous’) for omitting two of Kalyan’s most vital swaras (Ma & Pa). Remains popular among artists of the Dagarvani Dhrupad, but few others have risen to the centreless challenges of losing both mid-saptak swaras. Aminuddin Dagar reportedly considered the raga to be an offshoot of Khem Kalyan – whileUday Bhawalkar links it to the congruent Carnatic Niroshta, possibly borrowed South by composer Muthiah Bhagavatar (‘niroshta’ roughly translates as ‘without the lips’: Ma and Pa being the only sargam syllables which require them!). Pelva Naik, who describes Adbhut Kalyan as “very special in the Dagar gharana”, kindly recommended me a pair of renditions by her guru Zia Fariduddin Dagar (a full-length take & a scene from Mani Kaur’s 1983 Dhrupad film: also hear the same themes reprised by his disciple Nirmalya Dey three decades later at Darbar 2013).
–Nirmalya Dey (2013)–
• Raag Adi Basant •
S-rR-G-m-P-D-N-S
An ancient form of Basant (‘Springtime’), named for its connections to the ceremonies of that season. Many see Adi Basant as the latter’s main ancestor, highlighting its historic prevalence in Dhrupad and Haveli Sangeet – and some, including Maihar musicians, consider it inseparable from Shuddha Basant (‘shuddha’, as well as referring to ‘pure’ or ‘unaltered’ swaras, may also indicate a ‘primary’ or ‘original’ quality: similar to the meaning of ‘adi’). Associated with the pre-dawn hours, Adi Basant remains rare outside of the Dagarvani Dhrupad lineage. Compare to other Basant family ragas including Gauri Basant, Malti Basant, and Basanti Kanada.
–Bahauddin Dagar (2019)–
• Raag Ahir Bhairav •
S-r-G-m-P-D-n-S
Ahir Bhairav’s unique swara set is inextricably linked to visions of the Indian sunrise. While the raga’s poorvang matches that of the ‘main’ Bhairav (SrGm) its uttarang presents its owngeometries, taking a shuddha Dha and komal ni (PDnS) in a manner closer to the Kafi-ang (although many artists tune their Dha sruti closer to that of Bageshri than Kafi). Mythologically linked to North India’s Ahir cattle-herding caste, the raga is fabled to mimic the ringing of cowbells at dawn – with patient ascent motions eventually settling into extended oscillations on the komal re (said by some to symbolise the sun’s morning emergence: also see ‘non-zero Sa’). Shuddha ma tends to outweigh Pa (visible in a ‘tonagram’ by Rao/Meer) – although interpretations continue to vary, with Deepak Raja’s survey of recordings stating that “the vadi seems elusive, and the samvadi does not even appear faintly on the horizon…”. Compare to Ahiri (the same scale with komal ga, seemingly of shared lineage) – as well as related forms including Prabhateshwari, Niranjani Todi, and Rati Bhairav.
–Wasifuddin Dagar (2018)–
• Raag Ahir Lalit •
S-r-G-mM-D-n-S
Introduced by Ravi Shankar, drawing from the swara material of three morning ragas: Ahiri, Ahir Bhairav, and Lalit. As per Deepak Raja, “for most listeners, Ahir Lalit will be unable to escape the shadow of Ahir Bhairav over the Lalit facet of the raga…since Ahiri is heard mainly as a Bhairav / Ahir Bhairav variant”. Nevertheless, the raga’s distinctive ‘double-Ma, no Pa’ structure (matching the shape of ‘Ahir Bhairav komal Pa’) allows for unmistakeable flavours of Lalit – and, being a rare and recently-created raga, its phraseologies remain largely uncodified, with fresh melodic expanses open to the interpretation of performers. Refer to prominent renditions by Shankar and Hariprasad Chaurasia.
–Ravi Shankar (1971)–
• Raag Ahiri •
S-r-g-m-P-D-n-S
Somewhatresembling ‘Bageshri komal re’, ‘Ahir Bhairav komal ga’, or ‘Bhairavi shuddha Dha’, Ahiri favours long, kaleidoscopic melodies, laden with shapes from proximate ragas. Artists may seek to accentuate the ‘equilateral triangle’ of nyas (rmD: an augmented triad), also drawing from its murchana-set neighbours Patdeep, Charukeshi, and Vachaspati. Matches the Carnatic Natakapriya, although ultimate origins remain mysterious – also see Ahiri Todi, Jaiwanti Todi, and Deen Todi.
–Harmeet Virdee (2009)–
• Raag Ahiri Todi •
S-R-g-m-P-D-nN-S
While the title ‘Ahiri Todi’ is often used interchangeably with Ahiri, the former raga has a more complex historical lineage: comprising both an Ahiri-congruent form which many consider indistinct from the main raga (SrgmPDnS) – and an older, near-extinct version which approximates the shape of Asavari (SRgmPDnNS). Agra vocalist Khadim Hussain Khan’s intriguing recording of this second form – one of only a few I can find – displays an unusually strong poorvang-dominance, revolving around phrases such as S(n)S, Sg, (m)g, RSR. Dha is skipped in aroha, and touches of a ‘mid-sruti Ni’ manifest in how root motifs blur between S(n)S and S(N)S. To add further intrigue, a third ‘Ahiri Todi’ variant seems to have once existed, with Subba Rao’s Raga Nidhi listing a raga with this name under the swara set SrgmPdnNS (…possibly implying that it may have been a ‘bridge’ between the two forms).
–Khadim Hussain Khan (~1970s)–
• Raag Alhaiya Bilawal •
S-R-G-m-P-D-nN-S
While essentially summarisable as ‘Bilawal plus komal ni’, Alhaiya also presents other quirks. Most distinctively, Dha is treated as the vadi, but not as a nyas (Pa and Ga are used as stopping tones instead, often being reached via meend). Dha is also used to support komal ni via ‘up-and-down’ phrases such as SNDP, DnDP, giving an overall tendency towards uttarang-dominance. The raga has a long history (Pulokesh Bose: “the name ‘Alhaiya’ is found in the [16th-century] books of Pandit Lochan and Hridaya Narayanadeva”), and continues to evolve today. Refer to a demo performance by Gajananbuwa Joshi, teaching the raga to a young Ulhas Kashalkar, and also a brief melodic summary by legendary musicologist S.N. Ratanjankar.
–Ashwini Bhide-Deshpande (2018)–
• Raag Ambika Sarang •
S-R-mM-P-D-nN-S
According to Rajan Parrikar, Ambika Sarang is associated with Agra vocalist Chidanand Nagarkar, with “elements of Shuddha Sarang and Kafi blended together in a delicious cocktail” (as per his great-nephew Prasad Upasani, “The story goes that while teaching Shuddha Sarang, one student kept singing komal ni by mistake. This phrase stuck in his head, and resulted in him creating this raga, [which] he called ‘Ambika’ Sarang after the student who inspired it…”). Ga is banished, allowing for Saraswati-tinged movements: in fact, some incarnations of the raga are considered indistinguishable from vichitra veena maestro Gopal Krishnan’s Saraswati Sarang (echoed in a direct message I received from Krishnan’s grandson Akshat Sharma in early 2024). Apart from being prakriti, the term ‘Ambika’ (meaning ‘Mother’ in Sanskrit) is closely tied to the goddess Saraswati – in particular, her Adi Parashakti manifestation: a weapon-wielding, demon-slaying deity held as the ultimate matriarch of the universe, as well as the one who bestowed the other gods with their names (she also appears in the Malkauns myth).
–Parveen Sultana (2007)–
• Raag Amiri Todi •
(S-rR-g-m-P-dD-n-S?)
Created by sarod maestro Amjad Ali Khan in 1974, catalysed by the untimely passing of legendary vocalist Amir Khan the same year. As recounted to Indian Express in 2009: “My love and reverence for Khansaheb does not stem only from his music, but for his truly kind and humble nature. When he died, it appeared as if the light had gone out of our lives. The idea [for] Amiri Todi developed in my mind during that period of the intense grief…A mixture of two of my favourite ragas sung by Khansaheb: Shahana and Bilaskhani Todi”. Thus far, recordings prove elusive (thus, the swara-set suggested below is just a speculative ‘addition’ of these parental forms).
–Amjad Ali Khan (1974)–
• Raag Amritvarshini •
S-G-M-P-N-S
A rare audav raga corresponding to the swaras of ‘Yaman no Re/Dha’, imported from a well-established Carnatic form. The name translates as ‘one who showers the elixir of immortality’, hinting at its rich mythological history – in South India, the raga has long been associated with the monsoon (compare to the Northern Malhar ragas, which represent rainfall with contrasting swara sets). As recounted by Anuradha Mahesh, “In the Puranas, its written that when Ravana set Lord Hanuman’s tail ablaze, Hanuman set fire to the entirety of Lanka. Then, Ravana played Amruthavarshini on his veena to bring forth the rains, which put out the fire”. Another popular tale describes how the great composer Muthuswami Dikshitar visited Ettayapuram, a Tamil Nadu village stricken with severe drought, and implored the Goddess Devi to alleviate their plight, addressing her as ‘Anandamritakarshini Amritavarshini’ and singing ‘Salilam Varshaya Varshaya’ (‘let the rain pour’) – leading to such torrential rain that he soon had to plead ‘Sthambhaya, Sthambhaya’ (‘stop, stop’). Subbha Rao files the scale as a Malashree variant, thus placing it in Kalyan thaat (indeed, many Malashree renditions add touches of Ma and Ni to its basic SGP form) – while Ocean of Ragas describes it as “extremely difficult…the raga has an appealing melodic structure, but requires a high level of skill and maturity to present”. Sawani Shende links it to Maru Bihag, and it also lies close to Hindol (a Pa-for-Dha swap) and Amirkhani Kauns (komal ni instead), as well as being a murchana of Kaushik Dhwani, Gunkali, and Japaniya. I’m still unsure who first borrowed the scale into Hindustani music: with notable adopters including Balaram Pathak (sitar), Jitendra Abhisheki (khayal), Sandhya Rao (khayal), Zia Fariduddin Dagar (Dhrupad vocal), and Vinayak Vora (tabla tarang, in the rare 13-matra ‘firodast’ taal).
–Vinayak Vora (1986)–
• Raag Amirkhani Kauns •
S-G-M-P-n-S
A ‘pentatonic Vachaspati’ created (as the name implies) by Indore vocal master Amir Khan, which omits Re and Dha (thus, Amirkhani Kauns is to Vachaspati as Dhani is to Kafi). All swaras except Sa are imperfect – with the unusual Ma-ni sangati exerting inevitable gravity and drawing melodies away from clear resolution. Few of the Ustad’s renditions have made it to record, and an extended take from shortly before his tragic 1974 passing (possibly part of his very last concert) just lists it as ‘Untitled Raga’ (side B of the same LP contains another untitled form, which is in fact Chandramadhu: the same scale but with komal ga). As noted by Abhirang, the SGMPnS swara set is also known as ‘Yogini’ (Sanskrit for ‘state of union’: the same derivation as ‘yoga’ and ‘Jog’), which he links to the lineage of the Carnatic Hrodini – and elsewhere I’ve seen it referred to as ‘Audav Ram Kalyan’ (n.b. numerous Vachaspati renditions have a weak or absent aroha Re). Also see Khan’s Madhukauns (plus Amiri Todi, composed in his honour).
–Amir Khan (1974)–
• Raag Amrut Ranjani •
S-gG-m-dD-n-S
An ingenious evening raga created by the late (and vastly underappreciated) santoor maestro Ulhas Bapat, based around mirroring Jog’s GmgS catchphrase in the uttarang as Dndm: thus hinting at a ma-murchana (i.e. ‘double-Ga is to Sa as double-Dha is to ma’). This allows Amrut Ranjani (meaning ‘Nectar of Delight’) to visit the territory of Bageshri (DnS), Rageshri (GmD), and Jogeshwari (Gmg), while always retaining a distinct melodic character – cemented by a captivating pair of Bapat’s gats (as far as I can tell, the only available compositions). Given the lack of further information about the raga, take the chance to learn more about Bapat’s other creative endeavours (“He has developed his own specialized system of tuning, [featuring] all the 12 notes…and reconstructed the sticks in a manner which enables him to produce meend. Composing in unique taals is another speciality, e.g. ‘makarand’ [11 matras: ‘5½–5½’] and ‘pratik’ [9: ‘4½–4½’]”.
–Ulhas Bapat (2003)–
• Raag Anand Bhairav •
S-r-G-m-P-D-nN-S
A rarely-heard member of the Bhairav raganga, which seems to have no precise prakritis. As per Rajan Parrikar, “the komal dha in Bhairav is replaced by its shuddha counterpart, and the komal ni is parachuted into the scheme in an [avroh phrase] SDnP inspired by Bilawal (in Bhairav-ang ragas where either Re or Dha is rendered shuddha, the ma tends to assume a powerful role, and is often elevated to a vadi swara) – and care must be exercised to not let Anand Bhairav stray into Bhatiyar’s neighbourhood”. Refer to excellent renditions by Sanjeev Abhyankar (a self-composed khayal bandish) and Amjad Ali Khan.
–Sanjeev Abhyankar (2014)–
• Raag Anjani Kalyan •
S-R-g-M-P-D-N-S
A creation of Gwalior vocalist and educator Ramashreya Jha ‘Ramrang’ – named in honour of Anjana, a mythic Vanara princess fabled in Hindu lore as Lord Hanuman’s mother. As per his student Rajan Parrikar, “the basic idea involves rendering the aroha of Madhuvanti sampurna, by taking in both [shuddha] Re and Dha. The aroha contour thus…permits the advance of Kalyan-like clusters”. Abhirang’s rendition of Ramrang’s bandish (Hanana Hanumana Manake: transcribed below) features strong meend on ga, Ma, & Dha (which, along with Sa, form a ‘diminished square’: S-g-M-D) – with all swaras except komal ga set to their highest specific variants (SRMPDNS). Also congruent with a Carnatic form known as Dharmavati – and compare to other Ramrang-related ragas including Bhankari and Kesari Kalyan.
–Abhijith Shenoy ‘Abhirang’ (2020)–
• Raag Annapurna •
S-r-g-M-P-d-N-S
From my 2018 Darbar interview with bansuri maestro Rupak Kulkarni: “I lately composed Raag Annapurna: dedicated to Maa Annapurna Devi, my grand-guru [teacher of my teacher]. It is a combination of morning and evening ragas, so can be played at either of these times”. In 2022 I asked Kulkarni for more info: he described it as “a mixture of Todi and Shree, blending multiple elements from both ragas” – also sending me a mellifluous alap (below: as far as I can tell, the only recording out there!), full of haunting ornaments and odd dissonances, with Sa rendered durbal, and komal dha often skipped in wide up-jumps from Pa (PS(N)S, PrN, P(M)P…).
–Rupak Kulkarni (2019)–
• Raag Antardhwani •
S-r-g-m-d-N-S
Among the youngest ragas to have found global acclaim, Antardhwani (‘Sound of the Inner Self’) was unveiled by Shivkumar Sharma in the 1990s, who discovered its unique hexatonic shape by chance while retuning his santoor from one raga to another (although it is unknown which ones…). Adapting the geometries of Bhairavi, the raga is adored for its calming, meditative flavours, partly inspired by the late Pandit’s lifelong love of yoga. Prakriti with the seldom-heard Viyogavarali (independently adapted from a Carnatic raga by S.N. Ratanjankar) – while also lying proximate to Gujiri Todi (the same scale with tivra Ma) and Chandrakauns (minus re).
–Shivkumar Sharma (1997)–
• Raag Anup •
S-R-gG-m-P-n-S
A recent creation of vocalist Sadhana Shiledar which serves to highlight the continuing phenomenon of ragas being inspired by regional folk melodies. As per her accompanying notes to a 2018 performance, “Anup is a dhun-ugam [folk-derived] raga, based on a folk tune from Dewas in the Malwa region of Madhya Pradesh”. Her full-length 2025 album rendition sets a sthayi of nnS(RG) GmPG GR(SR)S amidst a specific treatment of the double-Ga, with the shuddha dominating and the komal generally restricted to concluding motions such as nSg gRSnS. Also peruse Shiledar’s other raga creations Ritu, Godhuli, Savitri, & Bhinna Lalit – and read her broader thoughts on raga innovation: “As the thoughts, ideas, preferences, and beliefs of man change with the passage of time, it is unnatural, impossible, and unjustifiable to imagine the expression of art to be eternal. Transformations and modifications have always been a part of evolution…I eagerly accept these changes, and try to identify myself with them. In the process of change, certain conventions have disintegrated and crumbled like old mansions…”).
–Sadhana Shiledar (2025)–
• Raag Arun Malhar •
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A rare and ancient Malhar variant, said to be marked out by a DDnPDGPm pakad. As per Rajan Parrikar, “although it finds a mention in Bhatkhande, no details are forthcoming – there are a couple of other works where the raga is treated, but only in the sketchiest of terms”. Described as a mix of Bilawal, Gaud Malhar, and Shuddha Malhar, seasoned with “a Tilang-like tonal phrase, providing a very pleasing effect”. Refer to Ramrang’s 1989 rendition (bandish transcribed below), which showcases a strong shuddha Ga amidst slow-looping ornamental flourishes – as well as a 1970s tarana-tappa-kajri take by Vishnu Sewak Mishra (one of the only recordings I can find by the Benares maestro: a vital part of the city’s Prasuddhu-Monohar lineage).
–Ramashreya Jha ‘Ramrang’ (1989)–
• Raag Asa •
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Asa (‘Hope’) is a historically influential raga which still enjoys widespread fame in Sikh musical traditions. Long popular in the Punjab, it is mentioned over a hundred times in the Guru Granth Sahib (1604), connected to the Kafi and Asavari lineages of that era. Most major Gurus have composed shabads in it – as per SikhiWiki, “Asa has strong emotions of inspiration and courage…generating feelings of passion and a zeal to succeed”. See which shades you find in vocal performances by Narinder Singh, Gurmeet Singh Shant, and Munawar Ali Khan, as well as taus takes by Ranbir Singh and Siripal Singh (“this composition would be played in the doors of Amritsar Temple in the early morning”) – plus Kiranpal Singh’s 2023 santoor release, featuring komal ni as DnDP. An equivalent form also appears in the raga traditions of Afghanistan – as outlined by the Goldsmiths Afghan Music Unit, “Asa is regarded as particularly suitable for singing Sufi poetry, and is often used for the final ghazals” (refer to Daud Khan Sadozai’s captivating rabab rendition, which summons minor flavours with a strong focus on shuddha Dha). Compare to derivatives such as Asa Kafi, Asa Mand, and Asa Bhairav.
–Kiranpal Singh (2023)–
• Raag Asa Bhairav •
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A joining of Bhairav and the archaic Sikh form Asa (Sanskrit for ‘Hope’), matching the swaras of ‘Bilawal double-Re’ – with the shuddha taken in ascent, and the komal in descent. Parrikar notes that “the Bhairav-ang is expressed in the poorvang [e.g. Gm(G)rS], and the rest of the contour looks to Asa [e.g. S, S(m)RmP, DNPD, S]…Ravi Shankar furnishes a delightful play on the theme”. Shankar himself notes having “learned this rare raga from Baba [Allauddin Khan], and developed it myself…its mood is of viraha shringar” (‘the loneliness of being apart from a lover’). Few other artists have cut full-length recordings, leaving ample space for future experiments. Compare to other ragas Shankar played a pivotal role in popularising (e.g. Hemant, Hem Bihag, & Nat Bhairav) – plus his Carnatic imports (Charukeshi, Vachaspati, Kirwani, Malay Marutam, & Simhendra Madhyamam).
–Ravi Shankar (1991)–
• Raag Asavari •
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An antique late morning raga, listed in lakshanagranthas as a ragini of Malkauns, Asavari’s modern incarnation comprises two variants: an older, Dhrupad-rooted ‘komal re’ form, and a more recent set of ‘shuddha Re’ interpretations. Both forms of the raga call for complex connective motions and expressive alankar around dha, which some artists tune to an ati-komal sruti. Classical ragmala paintings depict Asavari with imagery ranging from a female snake-charmer sitting atop a mountain to hooded cobras observing the world from perfumed sandalwood trees. Depending on re/Re position, can be prakriti with ragas including Bhairavi and Bilaskhani Todi (if re), or Adana, Darbari, Jaunpuri, and Kaunsi Kanada (if Re). Also see Gandhari, a double-Re raga which shares historical overlap with Asavari.
–Pelva Naik (2019)–
• Raag Badhans Sarang •
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A seldom-heard Sarang variant which appears in several different guises. All main forms include the swaras SRmPDnS, and most add shuddha Ni, while some also include shuddha Ga amidst other quirks. Thankfully, rare raga explorer Moumita Mitra recently conducted a survey of known renditions (read in full below), categorising them into three streams: ‘komal ni only’ (SRmPDnS: e.g. Asad Ali Khan), ‘double Ni’ (SRmPDnNS: e.g. K.G. Ginde), and ‘double Ni & shuddha Ga’ (SRGmPDnNS: e.g. Jitendra Abhisheki). Alongside detailed analysis, she recorded her own amalgamation of these three forms, set to lyrics from Bhatkhande’s Kramik Pustak Malika. Abhirang has similarly recorded three distinct prakars, all based around altering the descent of Brindabani Sarang: the first adds nDnP (SRmPDnNS), the second also adds mGmR (SRGmPDnNS), and the third adds GmR but avoids Dha (SRGmPnNS) – while Ishwar Chandra Karkare’s breakdown includes shades of Nayaki Kanada (nnPmP). A pair of similarly-named ragas – ‘Vadhans’ and ‘Vadhans Dakhani’ – appear in Sikh traditions, but it is unclear if these are connected to the main ‘Badhans’ lineage: despite overlapping swara-sets, their movement patterns seem distant from the Sarang family (e.g. NSRGPmGR). Compare to the nearby Miyan ki Sarang and Samant Sarang.
–Asad Ali Khan (1997)–
• Raag Bageshri •
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An ancient raga of the late night, Bageshri is associated with ‘vipralambha’ – the profound shades of longing felt by a separated lover. These sentiments are reflected in its multipolar phraseology: artists may resolve towards Sa for a clustered, inward-turning feel (mgRS), or towards shuddha ma for a more open, expansive sound (DnSgm) – often seen as symbolising two lovers, or perhaps competing waves of emotion within a single soul. Prakriti with Bhimpalasi, Shahana, and many other Kafi-shaped forms – although Bageshri is usually classed as a Kanada raga, and should be tuned to its own distinct set of sruti (e.g. shuddha Dha may be set closer to a ‘pure’ major 3rd above the ma vadi: ~886 cents from Sa vs. 900 in ‘equal temperament’). Also see nearby ragas including Rageshri, Durgawati, and Prabhateshwari.
–Shahid Parvez (2017)–
• Raag Bageshri Bahar •
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A blend of the late-night Bageshri and the springtime Bahar, most prominently recorded by Bhimsen Joshi (below: from his 1997 Rarely-Heard Ragas album, also featuring Hindolita & Jaijaiwanti Nat: although the actual recording session appears to have taken place in 1980). Matches the swara set of ‘Kafi double-Ni’, and is thus prakriti with several other ragas (e.g. Miyan Ki Malhar). Pa and komal ni assume greater prominence than in Bageshri (e.g. Bahar-style n\P glides), with characteristic phrases including Dn(D)SnS and (D)nSRSnS. Often, RgRS is favoured over Bageshri’s mgRS – and the use of shuddha Ni is typically infrequent,serving to preserve the base scale’s palindromic nature (PDnS<>SRgm). Kishori Amonkar has also taken the raga to soaring heights via an evocative pair of bandish (bada khayal: Rut Basant ki Apni Umang So & chota khayal: Sajan Sang Kaahe Nahi Rahi) – with the latter composition featuring a far more Malharic focus on shuddha Ni than in any of Joshi’s interpretations.
–Bhimsen Joshi (1997)–
• Raag Bahaduri Todi •
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Described by Parrikar as “an exceedingly beautiful raga, known for aesthetic unity in spite of its convoluted structure…the disparate constituents are tied together by special sancharis, and the intonation is mediated by meends”. He cites two distinct versions of the raga in modern circulation (neither of which appear to be linked to the Carnatic Bahaduri), noting that “the preferred strategy draws on Desi for [aroha development], and the eventual termination of melodic sorties draws on the Todi-ang…shuddha ma is approached from komal ga and dwelt upon; it is skipped en route to Pa”. Mallikarjun Mansur’s mandra-focused rendition (transcribed below) revolves around long, slow, full-toned poorvang lines, interchanging komal and shuddha re in fine balance – while Manjiri Asanare-Kelkar’s breakdown also highlights “prominent shades of other ragas, like Bilaskhani Todi, Desi, Bhairavi, and Jaunpuri”, many of which call on distinct sruti for the same basic swara positions (“an extremely complicated, very difficult raga, as complex as Khat…Pandit Ramashreya-ji has mentioned that if you want to sing Bahaduri Todi, you must learn it directly from a guru, or else it will lose the flavour…”). Also see a well-filmed santoor take by Ulhas Bapat, and AUTRIM’s pitch-graph tracing the motions of an Aslam Khan recording.
–Mallikarjun Mansur (~1990s)–
• Raag Bahar •
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As per Tanarang, Bahar (‘Spring’) “brings out nature’s beautiful blessings…full of shringar and bhakti ras…khatkas and intricate taans are conducive to its dynamic, fleeting nature”. While rooted in the Kanada raganga, the raga features a Malharic twin-Ni, with the shuddha being more prominent. Bageshri hallmarks are also evident in the weak aroha Re, and the use of shuddha ma as a nyas (e.g. S/m, m/n\P) – although Pa is strong, and the Kanada avroh signature is mostly preferred (e.g. Pgm, gmRS). In recent generations, the raga has proved itself an attractive jod ingredient (Parrikar: “highly promiscuous, and has been found in flagrante delicto with several other ragas”), appearing in such conjunctions as Bhairav Bahar, Bageshri Bahar, Rageshri Bahar, and Tilang Bahar.
–Shashank Maktedar (2020)–
• Raag Bairagi •
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A pentatonic form inducted into the ragascape by an early-career Ravi Shankar (as recounted in Oliver Craske’s superlative biography Indian Sun, p.106: “Shankar created Bairagi in 1949, [publishing] the raga, and a bandish in it, in Sangeet Magazine”). The ‘Megh komal re’ swara set – which may well have appeared in other guises throughout history – concisely scatters intervals of 1, 2, 3, and 4 semitones into a curious geometric shuffle, matching the Re-murchana of Shivranjani. Melodic motions tend to draw much of their character from the Bhairav-ang (particuarly sustained oscillations on komal re), with komal ni also assuming prominence (e.g. the Shahid Parvez take below). Generally favoured by instrumentalists, although audav specialist Amir Khan’s vocal renditions are ever-sublime. The nSr grouping seems reminiscent of Vedic chant refrains (in Anoushka Shankar’s words, “Bairagi has this deep, spiritual, internal quality”), while the overall swara-set resembles the Carnatic Revathi – and also the ‘Insen Scale’ of Japanese court music (as highlighted in Aishik Bandyopadhyay’s Comparative Study of Indian Ragas and Japanese Scales). Also see Shankar’s subsequent Bairagi Todi.
–Shahid Parvez Khan (2021)–
• Raag Bairagi Todi •
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Created by Ravi Shankar, Bairagi Todi replaces Bairagi’s shuddha ma with a Todi-intoned ati-komal ga, retaining the concise audav structure while presenting an odd mix of narrow and wide intervals. Sometimes matched with unusual talas (e.g. Shankar’s original is in ‘sade-gyarah’: a ‘fractional’ 11.5 matra cycle divided ‘4–4–2–1.5’), the raga is explorable in all saptak, with artists generally favouring a ‘deep and heavy atmosphere’, laden with phrases reworked from nearby forms. Non-Shankar renditions are relatively rare, but those on record display considerable divergence.
–Rashid Khan (1997)–
• Raag Bangal Bhairav •
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A distinctive Bhairav raganga offshoot with uncertain origins, summarised in oddly poetic fashion by MeetKalakar: “Being Nishad-taboo, its caste is shadav. Dhaivat and Rishabh are used softly…which are respectively the plaintiffs”. Performed by only a handful of khayal vocalists (e.g. Abhirang, Purnima Sen, and Yunus Hussain Khan) – but remains a staple of the Dagarvani Dhrupad: listen to a pakhawaj-less rendition from the 1980s by Nasir Aminuddin Dagar (“after the death of [his brother] Moinuddin in 1966, Aminuddin sang alone…He also changed the pitch of his singing far lower…”), and another by his nephew Wasifuddin (from a 2007 concert at Paris’ Bibliotheque Nationale: a city which has arguably become Dhrupad’s ‘second home’ over the past half-century).
–Priyanshu Ghosh (2022)–
• Raag Baradi •
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A long-lived and diffuse sonic lineage variously referred to as ‘Baradi’, ‘Barari’, ‘Varati’, and ‘Varali’, which appears in several overlapping modern forms, typically spanning the territory around Marwa thaat (Bhatkhande’s Sangeet Shastra Vol.3, published around a century ago, notes 13 distinct variants). Some artists omit tivra Ma, and others may add komal dha (‘Poorvi-ang’) -with Jaipur-Atrauli vocalist Manjiri Asanare-Kelkar explaining that “different versions [appear] in different gharanas – in [ours], it is sung in three different ways: with only shuddha Dha, with only komal dha, and with both dha” (refer to her pair of breakdowns for more detail). Parrikar’s analysis notes that K.G. Ginde’s rendition of a Ratanjankar bandish is built around core combinations including SGPDGP; PDMG MGrS; NrNDNDP (“the first cluster draws from Jait, the second from Bhankar, the third from Puriya Kalyan”).
–Anandrao Limaye (~1980s)–
• Raag Barwa •
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An Agra gharana speciality, Barwa blends ideas from Kafi (mP, mgR; mPDNS), Sindhura (SRmP; Pg), and Desi (RPRg). The komal ga tends to be omitted in aroha, and ma is rendered deergha, while Re-Pa is often given as the vadi-samvadi. Traditionally associated with the late morning hours, the raga is one of many Kafi-allied forms to have emerged from folk melodies (also see Zila Kafi), only becoming semi-formalised around the 18th century (Bhatkhande notes an older, audav form of Barwa: prakriti with the modern-day Dhani’s SgmPnS). Kuldeep Kumar notes that “until the middle of the last century, Barwa used to be a favourite of vocalists…but is seldom-heard these days”. Refer to classic khayal renditions by Faiyaz Khan & Latafat Hussain Khan (the ‘Prem Das’ and ‘Prem Priya’ of the Agra lineage) – as well as a rare instrumental take by sarodiya Buddhadev Dasgupta.
–Waseem Ahmed Khan (2021)–
• Raag Basant •
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Basant (meaning ‘Springtime’) is a historic and highly influential form, with a lineage stretching back to at least the 8th century. The raga’s modern incarnation matches the swaras of Poorvi thaat, with shades of shuddha ma also permitted in some interpretations (e.g. SmmG; mdrS). Phraseological allies include Puriya (GMdNM; mdGmG) and Shree (e.g. NrS; rNdP), although tivra Ma is elongated more than komal re, and melodic development is mostly focused on the uttarang portions of madhya and taar saptak. Tanarang gives a pakad of P; MGMG, describing “shringar and separation pangs…a meend-pradhan raga creating a heavy atmosphere”. A perennially popular jod ingredient (e.g. Gauri Basant, Malti Basant, Dakshinatya Basant, & Basanti Kanada), and particularly cherished by Sikh traditions, with many great saints having composed hymns in it – as per one Sikh writer, Basant “encourages the mind to brush away its selfishness…there is hope and expectation of new beginnings, the start of new cycles”. Also see Paraj, which can often share significant overlap with Basant (e.g. Venkatesh Kumar’s Basant bandish below is remarkably close to a famous Paraj composition: PdS(rSNS), (S)N\d, P(dPM)P vs. dNS(rNS), S(NS…N)d (dP)P).
–Venkatesh Kumar (2019)–
• Raag Basant Bahar •
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A complex jod raga which, due to its parentage, has the rare distinction of using all 12 swara positions in its core form (Basant: SrGMPdNS + Bahar: SRgmPDnNS). While there are other ragas which do allow the use of all swaras, they tend to be either combinational experiments (e.g. Patmanjari, a blend of five chosen ragas) or mishra forms (e.g. Pahadi, which permits outside tones but does not require them) – as far as I can tell, Basant Bahar is the only raga to actually demand all 12 swaras (see my 2025 Reddit thread for more discussion). Kishori Amonkar – the raga’s foremost explorer – visits all 12 swaras within the first 45 seconds of her most famous recording, also building the full set into a bandish composed by her mother Mogubai Kurdikar (transcribed below). Basant’s angular movements tend to dominate the raga image (sthayi: dP PMG GM), with flashes of Bahar offering sporadic relief (e.g. mPm mnD) – although Kishori’s taans sometimes blend both ragas into long, unified melodies. Also recorded by vocalists including Akbar Ali, Amir Khan, Fareed Hassan, Ajoy Chakraborty, & Ranjani Ramachandran – while Bhimsen Joshi’s youthful renditions are said to have inspired the title of the famous 1956 film scored by Shankar-Jaikishan, in which an astrologer’s son disobeys his father’s wishes and becomes a raga singer instead, displaying great talent before being poisoned by a rival and healed by a dancing girl.
–Kishori Amonkar (1991)–
• Raag Basant Mukhari •
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Effectively blending the poorvang of Bhairav with the uttarang of Bhairavi (SrGm; PdnS), Basant Mukhari’s complex history bears the imprints of multiple musical cultures. While its main modern inception is traceable to S.N. Ratanjankar’s eclectic Carnatic borrowings of the 1950s (also see Charukeshi: the same scale with komal re instead), many also explicitly link it to a now-extinct form known as ‘Hijaz’, itself derived from a Middle Eastern maqam of the same name. Related forms thus turn up across the Islamic world and beyond (e.g. in jazz, the same collection of tones is referred to as the ‘Phrygian Dominant’, while Jewish musicians may know it as the ‘Hava Nagila scale’ after a famous Bar Mitzvah tune – and others call it ‘Escala Andaluza’ for its popularity in Andalucian flamenco). Also see Gangeshwari (the same swara set minus re), as well as a variety of ragas which may appear as chayas in Basant Mukhari renditions: e.g. Malkauns (mdnS), Jogiya (SrmPd), Ahir Bhairav (nSrGmP), and Jaunpuri (mPdnS). Seemingly unconnected to the ancient Basant lineage (the term ‘basant’ means ‘springtime’).
–Shahid Parvez (2014)–
• Raag Basanti Kanada •
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Perhaps the only Kanada raga to give prominence to tivra Ma (which appears in Basant-like poorvang motions such as GMDMG; MGrS), Basanti Kanada is a thinly-analysed form which summons idiosyncratic tensions via a precise mixing of seemingly incongruous elements (e.g. from the bandish below: DmG, GMdM\G, MGrS). Predominantly associated with vocalists of the Jaipur-Atrauli gharana, the raga is best-known via Kishori Amonkar’s numerous renditions (also refer to a superb recording by her disciple Arun Dravid, and another by Mallikarjun Mansur). As yet untouched by instrumentalists.
–Arun Dravid (1984)–
• Raag Bayati •
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A unique experiment by vocalist Dinkar Kaikini, based on adapting an Middle Eastern melodic form known as Maqam-al-Bayati – resulting in highly unusual sruti tunings for re, ga, dha, & ni, all of which are set to ‘quarter-tonal’ shades roughly halfway between komal and shuddha (thus, only Sa, ma, & Pa are left at familiar pitches: see below for a breakdown of the original Arabic Bayati). Kaikini’s sole album rendition, set in a 5-beat tala of his own creation (‘pancham rupak’), traverses the raga’s curious sruti landscape to superb effect, offering glimpses of Bhairavi and Todi with acrobatic poorvang ornaments. The same bandish (Tu Karim Tu Rahim) has since been performed in classical and fusion formats by Kaikini’s disciple Samarth Nagakar, who sees the raga as a demonstration of his guru’s humanitarian attitudes: “The lyrics are very relevant to the world today, where emotions are running high. We [must] rise above…nationality, religion, caste, gender…The things that are universal are music, love, bonding, and spiritual unity”. Compare to a similar concept by Edward Powell on the ‘ragamaqamtar’ entitled Bayati Kanada (part of his ‘ragmakams’ series) – as well as to Kumar Gandharva’s Lagan Gandhar, the only other explicitly ‘quarter-tonal’ raga I know of. Also see other Kaikini creations such as Gagan Vihang and Gunaranjani – and for more on his life and music, read a brief bio from Baithak Foundation (“Kaikini molded the deep scholasticism of Ratanjankar-ji’s approach and the performative influence of Ustad Faiyaz Khan. He has composed on topics [including] the first moon landing, issues of hunger and starvation, and even humorously about the state of the modern music critic…”).
–Dinkar Kaikini (~1980s)–
• Raag Bhairav •
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Revered as the foremost raga of Lord Shiva, the morning Bhairav takes its name from Kala Bhairava (‘Bhaya-Rava’: ‘the one who roars fear’) – an apocalyptic manifestation of the deity fabled to have cut off one of Brahma’s five heads to silence his arrogance. Renditions reflect the gravity of these ancient tales, depicting Shiva’s resulting tandav (‘dance of destruction’) with wide-roving motions and dense andolan on re and dha, with patient melodic explorations often concluding in an idiosyncratic G\rS phrase. Dhrupad vocalist Wasifuddin Dagar recounts that “in the Dagar family, the initiation to music starts with Bhairav” – and, as per Parrikar, “Bhairav is so fundamental that its impact on India’s musical soul can never be overstated…verily, it falls to the lot of the noblest of ragas, deserving of renewal and reflection every single day”. Prakriti with the core forms of Kalingada and Gauri – and also see other ragas of the wide-branching Bhairav family, including Ahir Bhairav, Nat Bhairav, Rati Bhairav, and Saurashtra Bhairav.
–Rupak Kulkarni (2019)–
• Raag Bhairav Bahar •
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A ten-toned multi-jod raga, Bhairav Bahar’s descent blends the melodic signatures of several disparate ragas, notably including the springtime Bahar – although, as per Darbhanga Dhrupad vocalist Premkumar Mallick, flavours of Bhairav should dominate the overall impression. Bose gives a vadi-samvadi of ma-Sa, while also mentioning the existence of an alternate ‘double-Dha’ version (thus allowing for the use of every swara position except tivra Ma). Refer to recordings by Bhimsen Joshi, Apoorva Gokhale, and Vilayat Khan (at the 1981 BBC Proms with Zakir Hussain on tabla, also showcasing the Imdadkhani sitarist’s impressive vocal skills) – as well as Rajan Parrikar’s rundown of further renditions. Appears to have no prakritis.
–Apoorva Gokhale (2018)–
• Raag Bhairavi •
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Probably the most prominent raga in the entire Hindustani canon, the dawn Bhairavi (‘awe, terror’: named after the Fifth Avatar of Mahadevi, the Mother Goddess) is a concert-closing staple. Unique in its chromatic flexibilities, the raga’s ‘Mishra Bhairavi’ form can span the full swara spectrum, allowing for a multitude of moods in the hands of a master – although shuddha ma tends to assume particular prominence as the vadi. Classified in archaic lakshanagranthas as a ragini of Bhairav (although the Bhairavi of Tansen’s 16th-century era was more akin to today’s Kafi thaat: still evident in today’s ‘Carnatic Bhairavi’) – with the raga’s modern incarnation enjoying widespread fame across thumri, bhajan, ghazal, filmi and many other light-classical forms. Its ‘all-komal’ scale is prakriti with Bilaskhani Todi and Asavari komal re, as well as approximating the ‘Phrygian Mode’ of Western music. Also see proximate shapes such as Ahiri (‘Bhairavi shuddha Dha’), Basant Mukhari (‘Bhairavi shuddha Ga’), and Meladalan (‘Bhairavi komal Pa’: also interpreted as ‘Madhyam se Bhairavi’ by Nikhil Banerjee).
–Venkatesh Kumar (2019)–
• Raag Bhankar •
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Bhankar is a complex morning form which introduces Lalit-flavoured phrases to the basic framework of Bhatiyar. Manjiri Asanare-Kelkar cites two main variants sung in her Jaipur-Atrauli gharana, one of which also features touches of Bhairav – with both versions sharing common phrases including Bhatiyar’s Sm mPG, MDS and Lalit’s NdMm, GmMmG. She also elucidates how “there are certain swara-lagav which are beyond grammar, and cannot be explained in words…to understand them, I request that you listen to the recordings of Pandits Mallikarjun Mansur and Rajshekhar Mansur” (see her full Amodini breakdown below). Parrikar, who connects Bhankar to the ancient Pancham lineage, points out that the Jaipur-Atrauli versions differ from those of other gharanas – in the Agra edition, only shuddha Dha is used, with phrases from Poorvi replacing those of Lalit (e.g. NDMGMG, MGrS). Ocean of Ragas summarises the main distinctions from Bhatiyar: “Bhankar…nyas is also on Ga, tivra Ma is more dominant, and the M-D and P-G sangatis are stronger”. Refer to vocal renditions from Dilrang (Agra), Faiyaz Khan (Agra), A.T. Kanan (Kirana), Laxmibai Jadhav (Jaipur-Atrauli), and Jitendra Abhisheki (mixed-gharana) – as well as instrumentals from Vilayat Khan (sitar), Ramprapanna Bhattacharya (surbahar), and Rais Khan & Amjad Ali Khan (sitar/sarod: a unique jugalbandi with incredible double-tabla accompaniment from the superstar Benares duo of Kishan Maharaj & Sharda Sahai). [n.b. ‘Bhankar’ and ‘Bhankari’ are distinct entities: while both are based on Bhatiyar, the latter is a recent creation of Ramashreya Jha ‘Ramrang’ which also draws on Jait, Bibhas, and Deshkar].
–A.T. Kanan (1971)–
• Raag Bhankari •
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A complex blend of several ragas, Bhankari was created by Gwalior guru Ramashreya Jha ‘Ramrang’. His student Rajan Parrikar describes it as a “tantalizing melody blending facets of Bhatiyar, Jait, Bibhas, and Deshkar, while retaining an aesthetic coherence in the end product”. Ramrang’s renditions also overlap significantly with some interpretations of Bhankar – an older raga which also draws heavily from Bhatiyar while also borrowing phrases from Lalit, Bhairav, and Poorvi (indeed, I’m still unsure of exactly how Bhankar and Bhankari relate to each other…further info welcome!). Compare to Ramrang’s other creations including Anjani Kalyan and Kesari Kalyan – and read a brief bio article (“His fertile imagination, retentiveness, and quickness of mind are the key strengths attending his creative impulse. He carries all the essential music in his head; always at hand for instant recall. In a typical composition, each word, swara, and matra are tied together in a symbiotic melodic ecosystem…”).
–Ramashreya Jha ‘Ramrang’ (~1990s)–
• Raag Bhatiyar •
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A dawn raga fabled as a creation of Raja Bharthari, a mythical King of Ujjain who is said to have left behind his life of material wealth and romantic pleasure to pursue a path of ascetic devotion (“Bharthari resolves to kill a black buck, and seek diksha [initiation rites] from the yogi…As the plan unfolds, it is Guru Gorakhnath who brings the buck back to life, and makes him his disciple…this done, Bharthari becomes a yogi…”). Somewhat resembling a ‘vakra Marwa with ma and Pa’, Bhatiyar omits or limits re and Ni in aroha – with, as per Deepak Raja, “a centre of melodic gravity in the mid-octave region, but tilting towards the upper tetrachord”. Some perceive a foreboding character, but the raga’s subtleties can produce many moods.
–Mita Nag (2014)–
• Raag Bhatiyari Bhairav •
S-r-G-m-P-D-N-S
A hybrid of two morning ragas: Bhairav and Bhatiyar. While movements of the latter take centre-stage, its typical PGrS descending phrase is replaced by Bhairav’s GmG\rS signature: Ramrang offers indicative patterns including Sm; mPGm; GmPDNP; DmPGmP; DNr; NDP; GmPmrS; PGmrS, occasionally seasoned with tivra Ma via MDS [n.b. ‘Bhairav-Bhatiyar’, though built from the same pairing, is considered to be a distinct form: employing double-Dha amidst other quirks]. The basic SrGmPDNS scale form (shared with Mangal Bhairav and Dakshinatya Basant) also bears a curious trio of relations to the ‘32 expanded thaat’ (i.e. all 7-swara sampurna scales): being prakriti with #18, a ma-murchana of #3, and a reversal of #24.
–Ramashreya Jha ‘Ramrang’ (2007)–
• Raag Bhavani •
S-R-m-D-S
Distinguished by permitting only four swaras (and sometimes titled ‘Chatuswari’: ‘four-toned’), Bhavani’s symmetrical shape is akin to ‘Durga no Pa’. Its intriguing surtar sparsity necessitates a multipolar approach to melodic resolution, tempting a murchana-like refocus towards the triads available from Re (RmD: minor) and ma (mDS: major). Associated with the 20th-century experiments of Gwalior vocalist Narayanrao Vyas (who pointed his renditions towards the Bilawal-ang: and, curiously, cut this recording with the tabla’s Na stroke tuned to ma rather than Sa: see my Survey of Sa Locations for more such oddities), with others such as Abhirang continuing in this vein today. Other ‘chatuswari’ ragas include Shivangi (SGPD: a ‘Deshkar no Re’ sung by Shubhada Moghe via her guru Manikbua Thakurdas: and, incidentally, Bhavani’s exact ma-murchana), Bairagi Shree (SrPn: a recent fusion by Abhirang), and Bharadwaj Harindra (SgGPn: an invention of A. Sundarmurthy with 5 ‘specific’ swaras but only 4 ‘generic’ ones, which ascends and descends with only 4 in each direction too: SGPnS<>SnPgS) – as well as other 4-tone experiments such as Hungarian-Austrian composer György Ligeti’s piano solo Musica Ricercata #3 (SgGP). Send in any I’ve missed!
–Narayanrao Vyas (~1960s)–
• Raag Bhavmat Bhairav •
S-r-G-mM-P-D-n-S
A fusion of two famous morning ragas – Bhairav and shuddha-Dha Lalit – devised by gharana-blending genius Kumar Gandharva around the 1970s. Vanishingly few recordings seem to exist – refer to Gandharva’s classic renditions for starters (e.g. Kantha Re Janoo Re Janoo), as well as a 2019 sitar-accompanied take by his son Mukul Shivputra, and an excellent 2002 performance from Khushal Sharma. Thankfully, fellow raga researcher Srijan Deshpande helped clear up my ongoing confusions in mid-2025 , emailing with insights drawn from p.152 of Kumar Gandharva’s own Anupragvilas book (“Bhavmat Bhairav has both Ma, and only shuddha Ga and komal ni – not both Ga and both Ni…”).
–Kumar Gandharva (~1970s)–
• Raag Bheem •
S-R-gG-m-P-D-n-S
Near-identical to Gaoti, Bheem is sometimes said to be marked out by its allowance of komal ga in taar saptak – although this distinction now seems moot: there are plenty of Gaoti performances with this characteristic too. Debate persists: while Agra-Gwalior vocalist Prabhakar Karekar considers the ragas indistinguishable (having remarked that he “had been taught [Gaoti] under the name Bheem”), the liner notes to a Nikhil Banerjee album state that “Gaoti has the same aroha-avroh as Bheem, but…Bheem often uses mPGRS and mPGmGRS” (also noting that “Both ragas recall their kinship with Bhimpalasi through the use of komal ga in the upper octave [as SgRS]…Unlike Bhimpalasi, however, Re and Dha are more prominent, and ma is weaker and used in a vakra fashion”). Tanarang notes that “in uttarang, komal ni is always rendered [via a] meend from Sa, as a kan-swar like GmP, (S)nS…Similarly in avroh, ni is generally skipped like SP/DP“. Compare and contrast with Bhimpalasi, derived from an archaic conjoining of Bheem and the now near-extinct Palas [n.b. some scholars have noted the lineage of a separate Kafi-thaat Bheem, which is seemingly obsolete today].
–Veena Sahasrabuddhe (1999)–
• Raag Bhimpalasi •
S-R-g-m-P-D-n-S
Associated with the invigorating warmth of the late afternoon sun, Bhimpalasi evokes multiple shades of shringara (‘romantic love, erotic desire’). Thought to have arisen from an archaic union between Bheem and the near-extinct Palas, the raga calls for direct, passionate melodic outpourings, balancing a deft pentatonic ascent (nSgmPnS: prakriti with Dhani) against thesymmetry-inducing addition of Dha and Re on the way down, with these swaras typically ornamented from above as (n)D; (g)R. Shares its core form with Bageshri, Shahana, Desi, and other Kafi-shaped ragas, although Bhimpalasi often takes its own distinct set of sruti (e.g. Shivkumar Sharma tunes his Re and ni slightly ‘closer to Sa’, subtly reshading the symmetry of the DnS; SRg relationship). Also compare to Patdeep (a phraseological ally which takes a shuddha Ni instead) and Abheri (the closest Carnatic equivalent).
–Kushal Das (2010)–
• Raag Bhinna Shadja •
S-G-m-D-N-S
Often summarised as the ‘older form’ of today’s Kaushik Dhwani, Bhinna Shadja’s lineage stretches back over 1000 years, appearing in Matangamuni’s ~8th-century Brihaddeshi and other lakshanagranthas: Sarangdeva’s 13th-century Sangita Ratnakara describes the raga in remarkably similar terms to its modern incarnation (“Bhinna is devoid of Rishabh and Pancham, has Dhaivat as its initial and fundamental note, and Madhyam for its final note”). The name refers to its presumed origins as an offshoot of the ancient ‘Shadja-Grama’ base mode (‘Bhinna’ means ‘differentiated’, i.e. ‘differentiated from the Shadja-Grama scale’ – as per the Sangita Ratkanara, “Bhinna is differentiated with reference to four factors: sruti, jati, swara, and purity…”). While its phraseologies are relatively free, the shuddha ma vadi exerts the strongest melodic gravity – and some, including Kishori Amonkar, include shuddha Re as part of ornamental flourishes in avroh.
–Kishori Amonkar (1989)–
• Raag Bhupali •
S-R-G-P-D-S
Hailed for its structural simplicity, Bhupali is often the first raga taught to Hindustani students. While its basic ‘Major Pentatonic’ scale form is shared by countless global cultures, the North Indian incarnation (named for Madhya Pradesh’s Bhopal region) presents its own quirks – invoking tranquillity and home-bound reassurance with interlinked sliding motions and emphatic resolutions (e.g. SRS; S\DS). Shares its five swaras (if not its phraseologies) with Deshkar, Jait Kalyan, and the underlying ‘non-mishra’ shape of Pahadi, as well as forming the aroha of Shuddha Kalyan – with Mohanam being the closest Carnatic equivalent, and sarodiya Debasmita Bhattacharya noting that “in Chinese music, some scales match our ragas: I collaborated with a pipa [four-stringed lute] player, and it can sound like Bhupali is there”.
–Hariprasad Chaurasia (1996)–
• Raag Bhupali Todi •
S-r-g-P-d-S
A captivating audav raga said to symbolise spiritual purity, which essentially runs along the lines of ‘what if all Bhupali’s chal swaras were set as komal rather than shuddha?’ (SRGPDS > SrgPdS). Most renditions are poorvang-dominant, drawing from the Todi-ang as well as reshaping phrases from Bhupali, Bilaskhani Todi, and other forms (given the uniqueness of its swara set, there is little danger of over-trespass). Often presents a major-ish flavour, in part as the only ascending chromatic resolutions on offer are the S>r and P>d sangati – strengthening both these latter swaras (and thus drawing attention to the dSg major triad vs. the SgP minor triad). The basic scale shape is also viewable as ‘Bibhas komal ga’.
–Harjinderpal Matharu (2009)–
• Raag Bibhas •
S-r-G-P-d-S
The pentatonic Bibhas (or Vibhas) appears in at least three present-day forms: typically tilted towards either the Marwa, Bhairav, or Poorvi frameworks. The former takes a shuddha Dha, while the latter pair render it komal (thus drawing focus to Pa, which is often treated as a nyas). Prakriti with Reva in its komal dha incarnation, the raga is differentiated via a pakad of PddP, PGP, GrS, as well as a weaker treatment of komal re (this form is probably the most popular ‘audav Bhairav’ raga: also see Gunkali, Devranjani, & Zeelaf). Parrikar highlights Jitendra Abhisheki’s rendition of He Narahara Narayana, a bandish composed by Bhatkhande (“whose colophon ‘chatura’ is cleverly wedged in the antara”: see Mohankauns for a sargam-rooted spin on the same idea, as well as my Alphamelodics: global word-melody article). Possesses the rare property of ‘centredness’ (i.e. its ‘constellation’ balances at the swara wheel’s exact centre).
–Shruti Sadolikar (1992)–
• Raag Bihad Bhairav •
S-r-gG-m-P-D-nN-S
A ‘double-Ga, double-Ni’ creation of Bhairav-loving vocalist Kumar Gandharva (also see Bhavmat Bhairav and Rati Bhairav). Bose describes how “the projection of the raga is done mainly around Sa…the aroha poorvang is similar to Jogiya [Srm: also Gunakri], and it has a small portion of Shivmat Bhairav” [e.g. rgrS], giving pakad such as Srm; GrS rrS; nSS; rg grS; nrrS. Gandharva’s classic renditions mix extended uttarang-bounded explorations with emphatic resolution lines which reintroduce the komal re (e.g. PDnSr, r\S). Also recorded to great effect by his son Mukul Shivputra, who turns to darker melodic shades in a slower, more poorvang-focused interpretation.
–Kumar Gandharva (~1970s)–
• Raag Bihag •
S-R-G-mM-P-D-N-S
Created via the artful grafting of tivra Ma onto a Bilawal-oriented base, Bihag contains a wealth of melodic possibilities. Long linked to late evening festivities, its meend-laden tendencies are explored with symmetrical articulations and fluid resolution phrases, guided by nuanced swara hierarchies which may display significant gharana-to-gharana variance. The tivra Ma, while tending to be much weaker than the shuddha, turns up in characteristic motions such as PMGmG – set amidst a strong Ni and prominent Ga-Dha sangati. Prakriti with multiple ragas (e.g. Chayanat, Hameer, Nand) – and also compare to various derived forms such as Bihagda, Bihagara, Nat Bihag, Pat Bihag, Maru Bihag, and Chandni Bihag. Although the raga’s long-term history remains uncertain, some scholars link it to the lineages of Kedar and Gauri (and the name is thought to derive from ‘Vihang’, Sanskrit for ‘bird’).
–Bharat Bhushan Goswami (2014)–
• Raag Bihagara •
S-R-G-m-P-D-nN-S
A variant of Bihag popular in Kirtan and other Sikh devotional styles, used as the basis for compositions by great Gurus including Ram Das and Tegh Bahadur (some refer to the raga as ‘Punjabi Bihag’). As per Jawaddi Taksal, “Bihagara is very melodious, and brings out pangs of separation which can be removed by…becoming imbued with the shabad [holy verses]” – and. The basic Bihag framework is modified through the injection of Bilawal motions, with an Alhaiya-style double-Ni favoured over the usual double-Ma, amidst characteristic phrases such as GmP; NDP; DGmG. Also performed by Jaipur-Atrauli vocalists including Mallikarjun Mansur and Ashwini Bhide-Deshpande – and usually classed as a night raga. Also see the similarly Sikh-infused Bihagda, which adds Khamaj rather than Bilawal.
–Ashwini Bhide-Deshpande (2016)–
• Raag Bihagda •
S-R-G-m-P-D-nN-S
A Khamaj-seasoned Bihag variant with historic connections to the Carnatic Behag, which appears in several overlapping variants. Raja notes that the raga’s main ‘double-Ni’ form (indistinguishable from some types of Khokar) is associated with Jaipur-Atrauli vocalists, who apply a pakad of Gm PDnDP, GmG PmPG, and limit Bihag’s tivra Ma to swift ornamental movements – while a second, rarer incarnation is essentially just ‘Bihag with shuddha ma & Ni only’ (n.b. a third Bihagda, noted by Bhatkhande, is now defunct). Bor’s Raga Guide notes that, “In ragmala paintings, Bihagda is depicted as a woman with her arms raised overhead; and in the pictorial descriptions of Meshakarna (1570) and Somanatha (1609), it is portrayed as Kama, god of love, who captures the hearts of those separated from their lovers”.
–Ulhas Kashalkar (2000)–
• Raag Bihari •
S-R-G-m-P-D-N-S
Connected to historic folk tunes of the Bihar region, Bihari is popular as a setting for thumri and other romantic song styles. Its core movements lie close to Tilak Kamod, also drawing on Shuddha Nat, and sometimes featuring mishra flourishes. Kishori Amonkar’s renditions are among my personal favourites (bandish: “Sleep will not come to my eyes without seeing my beloved’s handsome face; Ages have gone by thinking about you; Oh one who decorates himself well, come now, only then can there be joy…”). Most at home when sung by Jaipur-Atrauli artists (Manik Bhide, Mallikarjun Mansur, Shruti Sadolikar), but performed to great effect by Imdadkhani sitarists (Shahid Parvez), Senia-Bangash sarodiyas (Amjad Ali Khan), and others. ‘Raag Bihari’ is also the title of a 2021 novel by Rakesh Varma.
–Shruti Sadolikar (2012)–
• Raag Bilaskhani Todi •
S-r-g-m-P-d-n-S
A hallowed form, Bilaskhani Todi is fabled to have been created by Bilas Khan: son of Tansen, the legendary composer of Emperor Akbar’s 16th-century durbar. On trying to sing Todi at his father’s funeral wake, Bilas found himself so grief-stricken that he mixed up the swaras – however, his panic was allayed on witnessing the corpse slowly raise up one hand in solemn approval of the new tune. Many variants of the myth abound, which, despite scant historical evidence, each reveal a different facet of the raga’s cultural personality (e.g. some say Tansen had previously issued a direct challenge to his sons to ‘blend the movements of Todi with the swaras of Bhairavi’, with others adding that Bilas had long been disfavoured by his father for his lack of musical accomplishments). Prakriti with Bhairavi, although its melodic motions are highly distinctive (e.g. the Todi-ang rgrS, with ga usually tuned to Todi’s ati-komal shade, as well as Bhupali Todi’s audav SrgPdS aroha).
–Kiranpal Singh (2006)–
• Raag Bilawal •
S-R-G-m-P-D-N-S
Approximates the Western Major Scale, thus taking an ‘all-shuddha’ sampurna swara set – and selected by the great V.N. Bhatkhande as the titular raga of Bilawal thaat – although its popularity has declined in the century since (partly in favour of prakritis such as Tilak Kamod and Bihari). Dha and Ga assume vital roles (although Dha should not be a nyas), and ma is sometimes omitted in ascent – while the inclusion of komal ni brings shades of Alhaiya Bilawal (…some say the ragas are indistinguishable). With possible origins in Veraval, Gujarat, the raga features prominently in Sikh history – with hundreds of shabads set to the raga by Guru Nanak, Guru Amar Das, Guru Ram Das, Guru Tegh Bahadur, and other saints (one Sikh writer describes the raga’s mood as “an overwhelming feeling of fulfilment, satisfaction and joy…like laughing out loud, there is no planning or ulterior motive”). Traditionally linked to the morning hours, and the hot summer sun.
–Bhimsen Joshi (1995)–
• Raag Champak •
S-R-G-m-P-D-nN-S
A seldom-heard neighbour of Khambavati, distinguished (often very subtly) by stronger use of shuddha ma, and sometimes involving a Gm\S catchphrase. Both ni swaras are used, with the komal introduced via vakra avroh motions (e.g. SRn). Named after a huge evergreen tree species with fragrant yellow-orange flowers, used in perfumery and featured in myths and legends from Indian history (including a famous tale of a dishonest champak: “Narada went back to the tree and cursed it for lying. He said that its flowers must never again be used in the worship of Shiva…and cursed the Brahmin, saying that he would be reborn as a demon…”).
–Roshan Abbas Khan (~2010s)–
• Raag Chanchalas Malhar •
S-R-g-m-P-nN-S
Chanchalas Malhar (canchalas: ‘restless’, ‘flirting’, ‘fickle’) is an aprachalit stream of the monsoon family, seldom heard in the modern era. As per SIMA, the basic framework is derived from Megh, with other movements borrowed from Nayaki Kanada (e.g. mPnnP) – along with distinct srutis of komal ga and ni, both of which are raised much higher than usual. According to Moumita Mitra’s 2023 analysis, two distinct versions are in modern circulation: the first (SRgmPnNS) incorporates phrases from Sarang and Kanada, and the second (SRmPDnS) draws instead on Desh and Shahana. Read Mitra’s full breakdown below, and listen to her own amalgamation of both forms – and browse other vocal renditions from Ganesh Prasad Mishra, Abdul Rashid Khan (sthayi: nnPP, PmPmg), and Arijit Mahalanabis (“The Malhar family has three branches: Megh, Miyan ki Malhar, and Gaud Malhar. Chanchalas Malhar falls under the Megh branch…there is a very high shruti of komal ga, which also changes the sruti of the komal ni…I like to think of this raga as a vague combination of Megh and Nayaki Kanada, although the srutis are very different”). Seemingly untouched by instrumentalists.
–Abdul Rashid Khan (2013)–
• Raag Chandni Bihag •
S-G-mM-P-D-nN-S
A speciality of the Rampur khayal gharana, which introduces the tense Ma-ni sangati to the basic framework of Bihag, further accentuated by a weak or absent Re – leaving two ‘4-row’ clusters (GmMP & DnNS), arranged symmetrically. Parrikar recounts the “enchanting tonal formulations” of his guru Ramrang’s rendition (passed down by his own guru Bholanath Bhatt, who in turn learned it from sarangi legend Bundu Khan) – while Ramrang’s Abhinava Geetanjali volumes give a chalan of SNSGmG, GmPDnS, nDPDNSNP, MPDnSnDP, GmG. The name translates as ‘Moonlit Bihag’.
–Ramashreya Jha ‘Ramrang’ (~1990s)–
• Raag Chandni Kedar •
S-R-G-mM-P-D-nN-S
A loosely-organised set of Kedar variations, Chandni Kedar (‘Moonlight Kedar’) is formed via minor modifications to its parent raga. As per Parrikar, who recommends a Kesarbai Kerkar mehfil rendition (Eri Ina Naina), “some suggest strengthening the komal ni and shuddha Ga in standard Kedar…others [suggest] Kedar with an added komal ni” – while Ocean of Ragas offers that “shuddha Ni is used in aroha, and komal ni is used [in avroh] as DnDP”. Refer to recordings by Shruti Sadolikar, Basavraj Rajguru, and Amir Khan (“a live performance at Imrat Khan’s house in Kolkata…this incredible audience [were] animated throughout…”) – as well as a magical 1967 sitar-surbahar jugalbandi from Imrat & Vilayat Khan, live from the Taj Mahal. Also see Jaldhar Kedar and Saraswati Kedar.
–Budhaditya Mukherjee (2016)–
• Raag Chandni Todi •
S-r-g-M-P-D-n-S
Equivalent to ‘Todi’s poorvang + Kafi’s uttarang‘ (or ‘Ahiri tivra Ma’), the SrgMPDnS scale has barely been explored in Hindustani music – in fact, I couldn’t trace a single recording of it until late 2025, when vocalist Ashish Dha sent me his experiment in a new raga titled Chandni Todi (‘Moonlit Todi’). He describes it as “a Todi variety using the swaras of Shadvidamargini, the 46th Carnatic mela…I considered calling it ‘Shadvidamargini Todi’, but this felt very alien to Hindustani naming conventions”. His brief Dhrupad-infused recording – transcribed in full below – explores its strange geometric layout to superb effect, interspersing Todi’s rgrS pakad with winding uttarang ornaments such as MD(PD); D(PDn); nS(nS). 4 of the 7 swaras (r-P-D-n) are ‘imperfect’ (i.e. with no swara a perfect 5th above them), and the rare ‘tivra Ma + komal ni’ sangati leaves its stamp on the mood. Intriguingly, Subbha Rao’s 1966 Raga Nidhi Vol.4 mentions that “Shadvidamargini correspond[s] to a raga called ‘Khatma’ in Hindustani sangeet” – however I couldn’t trace anything else about this raga, which appears to have been lost to the winds of time. Compare to Salagavarali (the same scale minus Ma) – especially the renditions of Jitendra Abhisheki, who includes subtle Ma shades to complete the scale.
–Ashish Dha (2025)–
• Raag Chandrakauns •
S-g-m-d-N-S
Chandrakauns is a spacious raga of relatively modern origin, only becoming distinct from divergent strains of ‘shuddha Ni Malkauns’ by around the mid-20th century. This Ni-for-ni replacement removes much of Malkauns’ symmetry and intervallic balance, with the chromatic leading-tone resolution (Ni>Sa) bringing more prominence to both swaras. Given these sharper tensions, it is often played at faster tempos than its parent – with modern renditions continuing to show wide phraseological variance. Compare to proximate scales such as Antardhwani (the same swara-set plus komal re), Rajeshwari (dha-for-Dha), and Tulsikauns (double-Ni) – as well as Kirwani, the principal sampurna raga which ‘encloses’ Chandrakauns’ scale. [n.b. Rao’s 1956 Raga Nidhi lists an alternate ‘Bageshri-ang Chandrakauns’ comprising swaras SgmDnS, now performed under the names ‘Audav Bageshri’ and ‘Purana Chandrakauns’: also see Sundarkauns].
–Ranjani & Gayatri (2015)–
• Raag Chandrakaushiki •
S-R-g-m-P-d-nN-S
An invention of Nikhil Banerjee, seemingly combining Chandrakauns and Kaushik. Expanding on a Malkauns base, the Kaunsi Kanada-like shuddha Re opens up a broader array of intervals to and from the twin-Ni positions – with the komal dha playing a similarly vital role below. (n.b. While some online sources refer to the raga as having been “created by Ali Akbar Khan in the classroom in 1977-78”, I can find nothing to back this up: possibly a confusion around Khan’s near-prakriti Chandranandan).
–Nikhil Banerjee (~1970s)–
• Raag Chandramadhu •
S-g-M-P-n-S
An angular pentatonic form conjured up by vocalist Amir Khan only a short time before his untimely death in a 1974 car accident – indeed, it is unclear if he ever formally named his new creation (I’ve seen it referred to as ‘Bhushwati’ and ‘Amarpriya’, and at least two releases just list it as ‘Untitled Raga’). A detailed RMIC thread discusses several plausible origin theories, generally linking the raga’s genesis to an intricate murchana process involving Chandrakauns and Madhukauns: it is prakriti with the latter, and Khan may well have made no distinction between the pair – however, given the general sparsity of information, it is unclear which recordings count as ‘true’ renditions. Bewitching in its oddities (‘Dhani tivra Ma’ / ‘Minor Pentatonic #4’) – also compare to his nearby Amirkhani Kauns (the same scale with shuddha Ga), as well as Amiri Todi (composed in his honour by Amjad Ali Khan).
–Amir Khan (1974)–
• Raag Chandranandan •
S-R-gG-m-P-d-nN-S
Chandranandan (‘Moonstruck’) is a modern classic, created by Ali Akbar Khan in a spare studio moment via spontaneously blending concepts from the Kaunsi family (“Three minutes and it was finished…They asked me for the name, but I never thought of the name, I never thought about the notes. I just thought of my father and played…”). The recording sold wildly – but, when audiences called out for the raga, he found he had forgotten how to play it (“I told them I’d forgotten which notes I used, and needed time…I had to buy the record and listen for six months”). The Ustad’s paradox-laden path of rediscovery is a truly curious tale, shining light onto his nuanced, multifaceted view of raga itself – encompassing everything from mythological visions and ancient rasa theory to metaphors of chess (in full below: including new information from the Khan family archives, kindly shared by his son Alam). Also see the four ragas which Khan drew from (Malkauns, Chandrakauns, Nandkauns, & Kaunsi Kanada), and the nearby Chandrakaushiki (created by Maihar stablemate Nikhil Banerjee around the same time), and the prakriti Enayetkhani Kanada (another recent Kanada innovation) – plus other Khansaab ragas including Gaurimanjari, Prabhakali, Malayalam, Medhavi, and Suha Todi.
–Ali Akbar Khan (1973)–
• Raag Chandraprabha •
S-R-m-d-N-S
A magical audav raga matching the scale of ‘Chandrakauns with Re instead of ga’ (or ‘Kirwani no ga/Pa’, thus allowing for poorvang shades of Sarang. Benares bansuriya Ajay Prasanna cites the raga as a creation of his father Bhola Nath Prasanna, adding that Chandraprabha “celebrates the light and glow of the moon…its serene calmness and mystery, hiding behind the clouds and occasionally glowing from behind them”. The best full-length instrumental renditions I can find are by Bismillah Khan (shehnai: see transcription below) and Happu Khan (violin) – with stellar vocal efforts coming from Akbar Ali (live at the 2015 Lahore Music Forum), Faiyaz & Niyaz Ahmed Khan (a masterful 1971 duet), Inayat Kaur Bajaj (in her words: “this raga feels like a forgotten dream”), and Zeeshan Khan (“he renders the full-speed aakar taans and sargams of the Rampur-Sahaswan gayaki”). Also see other ragas ‘enclosed’ by Kirwani – and compare to Sarangkauns (which takes komal ni instead) and Rasaranjani (shuddha Dha instead; and the only other audav raga in the index to entirely omit both Ga and Pa).
–Bismillah Khan (~1980s)–
• Raag Charju ki Malhar •
S-R-g-m-P-D-nN-S
A diffuse branch of the Malhar lineage which exists in several modern forms. Pandit Jasraj, probably the raga’s most prominent interpreter, sings it as a Miyan ki Malhar variant with Desi-ang traits, including a distinctive treatment of shuddha Dha, which is emphasised in phrases such as mPDNS – echoed in Hemala Khare-Ranade’s recital preface (“Charju ki Malhar basically follows the chalan of Miyan ki Malhar, with a few phrases from Desi”). Other versions draw on a range of auxiliary ragas: Abhirang links his rendition to Sorath, Barwa, and Darbari, also mentioning the importance of using NS and gRgS in conclusion lines, and Ali Akbar Khan uses Dha as mPDNSNS, mPD(nD)P – while Moumita Mitra discusses two versions, the first of which is distinguished by the phrases RP(m)g; Rg(RS)RS; NSRSR and the second by mPDNS, RNSDnP (also listen to her own amalgamation of both forms). Subba Rao’s 1956 Raga Nidhi Vol.1 (p.139), which mentions “chayas of Sindhura”, highlights an unusual feature – describing the raga as audav-shadav in its aroha-avroh structure, but sampurna overall, with ga and Dha dropped in aroha and ma in avroh (n.b. while this isn’t particularly clear or consistent in the recordings above, there are shades of it in common phrases such as RmPnS; PgRgRS). Listed by Chandrakantha as being named after a historic musician known as ‘Charju’, although I can’t find any further info on either Charju or the raga’s origins. Compare to other rare Malhars such as Arun Malhar, Chanchalas Malhar, Gaudgiri Malhar, Tilak Malhar, & Tanseni Madhuvanti.
–Pandit Jasraj (2005)–
• Raag Charukeshi •
S-R-G-m-P-d-n-S
Adopted from a Carnatic ragam, Charukeshi (‘One with Beautiful Hair’) calls for wide-open melodic exploration, favouring long lines which wind around themselves while visiting the furthest reaches of all three octaves. Like many Southern scales, it may be used as a canvas for recolouring multiple ideas from adjacent ragas (see avirbhav-tirobhav), while itself presenting an odd marriage of Major and Minor – with an ‘all-shuddha’ poorvang (SRGm) and ‘all-komal’ uttarang (PdnS) offering contrasting emotional shades (Aarshin Karande: “Charukeshi possesses multiple personalities, and lends itself well to contradictory emotions and moods”). Assumed to be a recent addition to the Northern ragascape, based on its lack of inclusion in Rao’s 1956 Raga Nidhi Vol. 1 (which states that “there is no raga called ‘Charukeshi’ in Hindustani sangeet”) – although S.N. Ratanjankar and Ravi Shankar were performing it soon after this date. Perennially popular for North-South jugalbandis (e.g. Purbayan Chatterjee & Shashank Subramanyam in Darbar VR360). Also compare to its murchana partners Patdeep, Ahiri, and Vachaspati – as well as Shankar’s other Carnatic imports, notably including Kirwani, Malay Marutam, and Simhendra Madhyamam.
–Shahid Parvez (2012)–
• Raag (Shuddha) Chaya •
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Despite its long history, Chaya (also called Shuddha Chaya) is now largely overshadowed by its compounds, chiefly including Chayanat. According to sarodiya Rahul Bhattacharya, the raga is “in many aspects a more restrained version of Chayanat”, chiefly distinguished by its poorvang-dominance and weaker treatment of komal ni – although Deepak Raja notes that “even learned musicians report that some compositions are indistinguishable”. Raja also gives unique phrases including RGmPDDP, adding that Buddhadev Dasgupta considers the raga proximate to Shuddha Kalyan via an emphasis on Re and Dha. Most modern renditions seem to be on sarod (e.g. Bhattacharya & Soumya Chakraverty) – although Bhimsen Joshi was known to perform it in conjunction with Chaya Malhar (the term ‘chaya’ translates as ‘shadow’: and may also describe ‘subtle shades’ of a particular sonic element: e.g. Dhavalshree often contains ‘chayas’ of Puriya Dhanashree).
–Soumya Chakraverty (2018)–
• Raag Chaya Malhar •
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Profiled by Parrikar as “a compound melody formed by joining elements of Chaya to the Malhar raganga signature [mRm\RP]…The nyas on Pa is important, but an inapposite nyas on Re or undue brightening of ma may tilt the development towards Nat Malhar”. Listen to his Gwalior guru Ramrang’s rendition, seasoned with a particularly prominent P\R antara meend – as well as Bhimsen Joshi’s numerous takes, sometimes performed in conjunction with Chaya itself (bandish transcribed below). Aside from this pair of pioneering vocalists, nobody else seems to have formally recorded the raga – and neither can I ascertain much about its origins (although Savitri’s writeup describes it as “a stamp of the Gwalior school”).
–Bhimsen Joshi (1960s)–
• Raag Chayanat •
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A longstanding combination of Chaya and Nat, creating (as per Tanarang) an “attractive, sweet, and emotionally swaying” mood – the latter in particular summoned via ‘simple vakra’ phrases such as DNDP; RGRS. The Pa-Re sangati is vital, and shuddha ma is stronger than tivra Ma – with the raga inviting a range of expressive ornament patterns (including a prominent P\S slide in descent), as well as an occasional kan of komal ni. Raja notes that Chayanat has now largely supplanted both its parents in popularity. Also compare to a well-stocked array of other Bihag-prakriti ragas listed below.
–Abhisek Lahiri (2011)–
• Raag Dagori •
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The seldom-heard Dagori features prominent use of shuddha Ni and characteristic slides and glides between ma and Re. Seemingly invented by Jaipur-Atrauli gharana founder Alladiya Khan (also the progenitor of Maru Bihag and Jait Kalyan), and still near-exclusively performed by the khayal singers of that tradition, although detailed information is scant. While I initially thought that it might be a Bilawal-ang interpretation of the now-lost Deepak, I was soon corrected via Akhil Jobanputra’s notes on Manjiri Asanare-Kelkar’s 2012 Darbar performance (bandish transcribed below) – who clarified that “Dagori is also known as ‘Deepaki’; Deepak is a different raga, while Dagori and Deepaki are one and the same” (…while the origins of the ‘Dagori’ name are uncertain, Shruti Sadolikar links it to the ‘Dagarvani’ Dhrupad, in which Alladiya Khan received extensive early training). Asanare-Kelkar herself describes Dagori as “an iconic ‘shade raga’ of the Jaipur-Atrauli gharana…there are different versions of the bandish”, emphasising the influence of Patdeep via mPNS ascents and DPm descents (hence ‘Deepaki’). Also performed by Bhimsen Joshi on occasion.
–Manjiri Asnare-Kelkar (2012)–
• Raag Dakshinatya Basant •
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A springtime raga described by sarodiya Joydeep Mukherjee as “very rare…adapted from Carnatic music” (hear him play it on “a very rare instrument, the Radhika Mohanveena”, created by Radhika Mohan Maitra in 1948 – accompanied by Subhasish Sabyasachi, “the first ambidextrous percussionist of India“). The name translates as ‘Southern Basant’ (to distinguish it from the main Basant) – while also sharing historical overlap with the more archaic Adi Basant and Shuddha Basant, alongside a close relationship to Shuddha Sohini (…many consider the two ragas to be indistinguishable). Enjoys an occasional presence on the modern concert stage – see recent renditions by Anuradha Kuber and Ashwini Bhide-Deshpande, as well as a bandish breakdown by Ashok Da Ranade.
–Anuradha Kuber (2009)–
• Raag Darbari •
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Darbari has been described as “the Emperor of Ragas, and the Raga of Emperors”. Its majestic tones famously echoed across the marble floors of Mughal palaces in centuries past, bringing solemn relief to kings, warlords, and diplomats alike. Consequently, modern renditions tend to retain a grave, reverential patience, pairing pakad of dnP & gmR amidst heavy, vocalistic ornaments and turns. Swara-congruent (if the raga’s significant sruti subtleties are ignored) with Adana, Jaunpuri, and Kaunsi Kanada.
–Ulhas Kashalkar (2011)–
• Raag Darjeeling •
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Unveiled by sitarist Niladri Kumar in a 2014 Taj Mahal tea commercial, launching a new Darjeeling-themed range described in marketing materials as “definitely our most premium offering” (Niladri: “I have composed [it] in honour of the superlative flavour”). Status as a ‘real raga’ (rather than just a Mishra Bhairavi) is highly dubious – and usually I’d just ignore anything emanating from a corporate marketing scheme: but I’ll make an exception here (…much as I intuitively hate almost all advertising, I’ve gotta give props to Taj Mahal for some real raga-infused gems over the years: ‘Wah Taj!’).
–Niladri Kumar (2020)–
• Raag Deen Todi •
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A near-extinct raga of uncertain origin, Deen Todi takes an ‘Ahiri no Pa’ form. Best preserved via an astonishing rendition by Kamalesh Maitra on the tabla tarang (a semicircle of 13 sruti-tuned dayan drums: below), accompanied by a multiphonic cluster of tanpura drones. Parveen Sultana has also sung it live, and seems to have taught it to students too – but today, the raga has largely been subsumed by Ravi Shankar’s prakriti Parameshwari. Also see the overlapping Jaiwanti Todi and Prabhateshwari – and read more about Maitra’s multi-tabla innnovations in an NTS overview (“He remained a member of [Ravi Shankar’s brother] Uday Shankar’s dance group for more than 20 years, travelling to the USA, China, Africa, and Europe, firstly as its master-drummer and then as its artistic director. While working for Uday, Maitra also studied the sarod with Ali Akbar Khan…”).
–Kamalesh Maitra (1996)–
• Raag Deepak •
(S-R-G-m-P-D-nN-S)
Strictly speaking, Deepak is a ‘lost raga’, known to us through its status as Tansen’s fabled fire-bringing melody – said to have sparked uncontrollable blazes when he sung it at Emperor Akbar’s 16th-century royal palace (…and requiring a rendition of Megh to extinguish it). But, while its original swaras may have been lost to the winds of time, many have sought to reignite the spirits of these ancient tales – with three disparate Deepak varieties having developed in recent generations: Bilawal-ang, Poorvi-ang, and Khamaj-ang (although, given the reimaginative nature of such endeavours, interpretations can vary wildly even within these categories). Tantalisingly, while the Deepak of Tansen’s era is hardly likely to have just ‘disappeared’, we will never really know which modern ragas may have inherited its essences. Also see Kedar: another fire-summoning form, traditionally classified as a ragini of Deepak.
–Ghulam Mustafa Khan (2002)–
• Raag Deepavali •
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A tantalising invention of bansuri pioneer Pannalal Ghosh, with a scale resembling ‘Bihag no Pa’ (or even ‘Bilawal komal Pa’/’Major Scale b5′). As with Pannababu’s other creations, debate persists as to exactly how he conceptualised the raga – his own renditions span a multitude of ideas, and, at the time of his sudden passing aged just 48, he had not left behind much insight as to its workings. Ocean of Ragas summarises it as “a melodious combination of Yaman and Lalit: Pa is omitted, and Lalit’s GmMmG phrase is superimposed onto Yaman’s basic structure”. However there are several ways to interpret the scale – Ghosh’s biographer Vishvas Kulkarni notes that “differential opinions exist about Deepavali”, highlighting three distinct perspectives: ‘Puriya Kalyan’s Pa-murchana’; ‘Lalit with shuddha Re+Dha’, and ‘Yaman Kalyan no Pa’ – also citing the phrasal proximity of Sohini (see below for a more detailed melodic analysis). Since Pannababu’s 1950s originals, the raga has been recorded by Pravin Godkhindi (bansuri), Pramod Kumar (sitar), Abhirang, and Ashwini Bhide-Deshpande (khayal). Prakriti with the ultra-rare Lalita Dhwani and Chakor Lalita – also compare to other ‘komal Pa’ scales (i.e. ‘double Ma, no Pa’). And for more about the life of Pannalal Ghosh – spanning stints as a boxer, literary journalist, and anti-colonial activist – read Kulkarni’s definitive 2019 biography.
–Pannalal Ghosh (~1950s)–
• Raag Des Malhar •
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A well-established fusion of the pastoral-themed Desh and the rain-bringing Malhar, spanning the full swara sets of both via characteristic movements such as RmP, PNSRmGR; mPnDP, PNS. Steadily popular with both instrumentalists (e.g. Ali Akbar Khan’s many renditions) and singers (e.g. the Bodas clan’s duets). Dinkar Kaikini’s daughter Aditi Upadhya recounts the tale behind the Agra exponent’s own stellar bandish: “He reached the Hanging Gardens on Malabar Hill in Bombay…Looking up, he saw clear blue sky, and, looking down, the clouds were so low the trees were hidden…Inspired, he immediately worked out a lyric (‘Dark, looms the canopy of clouds; They gather, swell, and shower their heavy bounty…Trees, vines, and garbed green sprouts smile and sway in the wind…’).
–Dinkar Kaikini (1974)–
• Raag Desh •
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Intimately connected to Indian national identity, Desh gives melodic direction to the famous patriotic anthem Vande Mataram, as well as soundtracking dozens of Rabindrasangeet. Associated with the second quarter of night, renditions tend towards the sweet and amorous, with Deepak Raja noting clear divergence between ‘classicist’ and ‘romanticist’ treatments (the former is confined to stricter rules and bounds, while the latter borrows more liberally from thumri and other light-classical styles). The Re-Pa sangati is strong, and Ga and Dha are both omitted in ascent – with Raja giving a pakad of RRmP; nDP; RmGR. Prakriti with many ragas, notably including Alhaiya Bilawal, Bihagara, Des Malhar, Gaud Malhar, Nat Kamod, and Sorath (in fact, the SRGmPDnNS‘swara set – akin to the ‘Bebop Dominant’ scale – matches more ragas in the Index than any other…).
–Ravi Shankar (1994)–
• Raag Deshkar •
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Typically summarised as ‘the other raga with Bhupali’s swaras’, Deshkar shuffles the same five tones to produce a mood suited more to the morning than evening hours. Taking a vadi-samvadi of Dha-Ga (as opposed to Bhupali’s Ga-Dha), the raga is uttarang-dominant, with a melodic focus on vakra movements in madhya and taar saptaks. Dha and Pa exerts gravity as nyas, and Re (prominent in Bhupali) is often rendered durbal or skipped in ascent. Parrikar provides definitive tonal sentences of P, PGPD, DP, PDGP and PDGPGRS, RSDS, SGPD, DP. Also see the prakriti Jait Kalyan.
–Venkatesh Kumar (2016)–
• Raag Desi •
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Desi (not to be confused with Desh) is a diffuse raga lineage, spanning several intertwined variants. Generally prakriti with Kafi, it may also follow the komal dha swara set of Asavari, as well as arriving in double-Dha form (Parrikar also discusses a rare double-Re variant known as ‘Utari Desi / Komal Desi’, likely connected to a lost Todi-ang). Generally focusing on madhya-taar saptak, the raga favours vakra motions such as SPDmP, RgSRnS – with Re and Pa rendered emphatically, and ma often employed ornamentally. While popular amongst khayal vocalists, it remains rare on the instrumental stage, although Ravi Shankar’s interpretations are effective. Also see the related Barwa, Bahaduri Todi, & Lanka Dahan Sarang – as well as an intriguing set of Picasso’s animal sketches, seemingly captioned by one of the Dagar Brothers with: “When every swara is tamed in Dhrupad like Picasso did with his bulls…this Desi emerges” (listen to their rendition).
–Aditya Modak (2020)–
• Raag Dev Gandhar •
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A Gwalior gharana speciality described by Tanarang as “an old melodic form, not much in vogue…very sweet, its unique appeal stems from the application of both gandhars, elaborated similar to Jaunpuri”. Unlike Gandhari, Dev Gandhar allows for both Ga variants in aroha as well as avroh – with Parrikar providing a simple summary for aspiring performers: “take Shuddha Re Asavari, add shuddha Ga as in RnSRGm. Shake well, but don’t stir” – also recounting how K.L. Saigal’s 1932 recording (Jhulanaa Jhulavo-Ree) “went on to become a national chant. He was initially paid 25 rupees for the song, and when the record company later offered him much more in response to the massive sales, he refused…”. Some renditions may feature tones from outside the base scale (e.g. Vidyadhar Vyas takes a shuddha-tinged uttarang and touches of tivra Ma) – also refer to Manjiri Asanare-Kelkar’s superb breakdown below. Compare to Devgandhari Todi, which adds komal re.
–Vidyadhar Vyas (1982)–
• Raag Devata Bhairav •
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A double-Ga Bhairav derivative, introduced by Agra gharana pioneer Azmat Hussain Khan ‘Dilrang’. As per Parrikar, the raga is distinguished from its parent with “the introduction of [an] avroh pragoya via the komal ga [mgrS]”. Some artists include subtle touches of komal ni, including Jitendra Abhisheki – who sings a madhyang-focused bandish (to me, reminiscent of Omkar Dadarkar’s Jogkauns rendition in its dPm(G)m phrase and twin-Ga mix). Abhirang, one of only a few others to have recorded it, offers pakad including gmPd, NS, mPGm & PGm, Pmg, rrS – with his analysis supplemented by Dilrang’s son Vajahat Hussain Khan, who explains that his father invented the raga “spontaneously…before a 1944 concert at Kolhapur’s Deval Club…with Alladiya Khan, Faiyaz Khan, Vilayat Khan, and many other seasoned musicians of Maharashtra in the audience”, adding (in contrast to Parrikar) that “there is no glimpse [of] Bhairavi…the komal ga and SRGmP [phrase] have to be handled very carefully…[to] exclude Bhairavi and Shivmat Bhairav”.
–Jitendra Abhisheki (1985)–
• Raag Devgandhari Todi •
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A modification of Dev Gandhar, devised by Agra vocalist S.N. Ratanjankar via the addition of a Todi-like komal re – thus filling the entire Sa-to-ma swara space. Also recorded by his student K.G. Ginde, who extends this hemitonic run (and leans further into Todi’s geometries) by including touches of shuddha Ni, also reworking some Darbaric uttarang movements (nSRn\d; mPn\d nS). And a 2008 Ramdas Bhatkal article commemorating C.J.R. Bhatt (another Ratanjankar disciple), notes that “An approximation [of] a swara would never satisfy him…I recall learning with him a rarely-sung raga, a creation of Ratanjankar’s, Devgandhari Todi – that required different shades of each swara…He had neither learnt this raga from his guru, nor heard anyone sing this melody. On the strength of his [instruction], I even made bold to present this raga at a concert attended by many stalwarts…”. Also listed as sung by B.D. Wadikar on A.I.R. on Feb 24th 1973 – although I can’t find any surviving recordings other than Ginde’s. Compare to other Ratanjankar-related ragas including Salagavarali, Viyogavarali, & Basant Mukhari.
–K.G. Ginde (1980s)–
• Raag Devgiri Bilawal •
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A fusion of Bilawal, Kalyan, and Shuddha Kalyan, which either avoids the tivra Ma throughout or relegates it to an ornamental role. Balancing an uttarang-focus with a tendency for melodic development in mandra and madhya saptak, the raga (as per Thakurdas) prioritises Ga and Dha, also using Pa as a nyas – with komal ni appearing in avroh only. AUTRIM’s analysis notes characteristic phrases including NSRGmG; RGRS; PD\G; D\P\G; GPNDNS; DPmG, as well as overlap with Alhaiya Bilawal. Also refer to Aneesh Pradhan’s rundown of five stellar renditions, including a idiosyncratic sarod take by the legendary Allauddin Khan.
–Ramashreya Jha ‘Ramrang’ (1989)–
• Raag Devranjani •
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Stretched by the emptiness of a vast Sa-ma poorvang jump, Devranjani is formed by removing the re and Ga from Bhairav. Abhirang offers up both ‘shuddha Ni’ and ‘double Ni’ variants, with the former appearing to be predominant – while Bhatkhande’s early 20th-century works discuss the importance of the ascending phrase Sm, mP as a launchpoint into the denser uttarang space. Seemingly of Carnatic origin (despite differing from the South Indian form of similar name) – and, though tantalising, remains rare.
–Abhijith Shenoy ‘Abhirang’ (2021)–
• Raag Devshri •
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An intriguing audav raga resembling ‘Megh tivra Ma’ (or ‘Vachaspati no Ga/Dha’). Its unique swara set – which features the unusual ‘tivra Ma, komal ni’ sangati – is principally distinguished by a disbalance in how Sa and Pa are ‘surrounded’ by the swaras above and below (nSR: ‘2-2’, MPn: ‘1-3’) – offering curious contrast with the symmetry of the R-M-n ‘equilateral triangle’ (a ‘4-4-4’ augmented triad). Described by Tanarang as “straightforward to sing, and easily expandable in all three octaves” – although few outside his immediate Gwalior vocal lineage have performed it thus far. Also see proximate forms such as Saraswati (add Dha) and Hemavati (add ga & Dha).
–Prakash Vishwanath Ringe (2000)–
• Raag Dhanashree •
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Dhanashree is a multivariate raga of ancient vintage (listed in Medieval lakshanagranthas as a ragini of Malkauns), which arrives in several present-day forms – usually matching the swaras of Kafi (SRgmPDnS), Khamaj double-Ni (SRGmPDnNS), Bhairavi (SrgmPdnS), Bilawal (SRGmPDNS), or Patdeep (SRgmPDNS). Characteristic motions tend to retain similar ‘generic’ movement patterns, mapping them to the differing chal of these base scales (e.g. Kafi vs. Khamaj: mgmRS vs. mGmRS). The predominant Kafi variant is perennially popular in kirtan and other Sikh devotional styles, but largely overshadowed on the classical stage by prakritis such as Bhimpalasi. Also see an AUTRIM pitch-graph of an Aslam Khan rendition (“Oh bird, please go and convey my message to my beloved; Ask him when he will return to my abode…”) – as well as the overlapping Puriya Dhanashree.
–Shubha Mudgal (1990s)–
• Raag Dhani •
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Despite its ‘Minor Pentatonic’ scale form enjoying global popularity as the predominant mode of blues, rock, pop, and countless other guitar-driven genres, Dhani is comparatively rare as a raga in its own right – with its swara set mostly being heard as the ‘aroha of Bhimpalasi’ rather than in isolation (…it may be the least-performed of all five Bhupali murchanas: and only joined this set in the modern era, having previously allowed Re in avroh). Renditions are relatively ‘rule-free’ within the bounds of the five swaras, although komal ga and ni tend to assume a natural prominence. Often described as ‘lively, playful, sprightly’, in spite of its ‘all-komal’ status. Also see nearby audav ragas including Jog, Tilang, and Madhukauns.
–Shahid Parvez Khan (2016)–
• Raag Dhavalshree •
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A Shree-ang monsoon raga which presents in multivariate modern forms, with particular variance evident in the status of Dha. Kishori Amonkar’s Jaipur-Atrauli interpretation adds shuddha Dha to the basic framework of Jaitashree, whereas Mallikarjun Mansur’s take renders dha komal amidst Shree-ang motions such as rNdP, also showcasing a strong SGP sangati and chayas of Puriya Dhanashree – while some sources consider the raga’s Maihar incarnation as a more straightforward ‘shuddha Dha Shree’ (in this gharana, it may also be titled ‘Dhaulashree’ or ‘Shree Kalyan’). Today’s renditions continue to display considerable variance.
–Kishori Amonkar (1988)–
• Raag DoGa Kalyan •
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A Ravi Shankar creation taking the form of ‘Yaman with komal ga instead of Re’ (‘DoGa’: ‘Double-Gandhar’) – which, despite never having been released in classical form, may have left its mark on modern music as a possible source for The Beatles’ Blue Jay Way, composed by Shankar’s sitar student George Harrison in 1967. At least, this is my conclusion – musicologists have long speculated as to which raga the song’s curious ‘Lydian #2’ scale form is based on, with prominent suggestions including Marwa, Multani, and the Carnatic Ranjani – but none of these fit the melody like DoGa Kalyan does (verse: SgMg SgG; gMDM gDP; chorus: DNSN; DNRSNSN, DNSN, DSNDPMG). The full answer is, however, a little murkier when it comes to raga metaphysics – see writeup below for my full explanation, including context on how Harrison composed it (…it’s not surprising that the answer was missed: as far as I can tell, the raga had never been catalogued before the release of this page in late 2025). While I cannot ascertain precisely when Shankar conceived of the raga, he would have come across a similar concept in the ‘tivra Re’ (‘shatshruti ri’/R3) of Carnatic music, equivalent to the Hindustani komal ga position or the Western Augmented 2nd – indeed, DoGa Kalyan matches the South Indian Kosalam (mela #71). As an avid rotator of ragas, he may also have encountered the scale as a murchana of Kirwani and Basant Mukhari (in jazz parlance, the Harmonic Minor modes). Whatever its genesis, Shankar never released a ‘pure’ classical recording – however, he did feature it as Section III: Scherzo of his 2010 Symphony, setting jhaptal motifs of SSPP MMPP MGgSS ggGG ggGMP against cascading string ostinatos and sitar cadenzas played by his daughter Anouskha. As per the album’s liner notes: “The melodic base is a creation of Ravi Shankar known as DoGa Kalyan…From the outset, rhythmic cycles moving in multiple metres are piled one upon the other, producing a hypnotic effect” (n.b. the other three movements – Allegro, Lento, and Finale – are set in Zila Kafi, Ahir Bhairav, and Pilu Banjara). Compare to other members of the highly exclusive ‘double-Ga, tivra Ma’ club including Faridi Todi, featuring a unique SrgGMd ascent sequence, and Rasikpriya, which also takes a ‘tivra Dha’/#6 – and also browse other Shankar-created ragas (e.g. Bairagi, Jogeshwari, Parameshwari, Mohankauns, Ahir Lalit, Pancham se Gara).
–Anoushka Shankar (2010)–
• Raag Din ki Puriya •
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Din ki Puriya (‘Daytime Puriya’) sets its six swaras to the general phrase patterns of the Puriya-ang, avoiding Pa throughout. The scale’s ‘palindromic hexagon’ places a tight hemitonic cluster (NSr) opposite a wider tone-trio (GMd), also providing an augmented ‘equilateral triangle’ (SGd). Melodic motions remain fairly free, given the lack of any prakriti ragas – with Sa standing out as the only ‘detached’ swara. Comparatively rare in khayal, and near-untouched by instrumentalists (aside from Kala Ramnath) – although Jitendra Abhisheki’s recordings have gained renown (Kovid Rathee also recounts the tale of a 1997 Jasraj rendition: “Apparently, someone in the audience was smoking a bidi…and Jasraj-ji modified the lyrics of the bandish to ask the culprit to stop, as it interfered with his singing…”).
–Sanjeev Abhyankar (2002)–
• Raag Durga •
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Beguiling in its pentatonic simplicity, Durga (Sanskrit: ‘invincible, impassable, inaccessible’) is inextricably tied to visions of the Hindu Mother Goddess: depicted in lore as a destroyer of demons and protector of the faithful (Maa Durga: who, according to legend, “was created to slay the buffalo demon Mahisha by Brahma, Vishnu, Shiva, and the lesser gods, who were otherwise powerless to overcome him…She is usually depicted riding a lion, with 8 or 10 arms each holding the special weapon of one of the gods…”). Despite these ancient associations, the raga is of relatively recent Carnatic import (seemingly evolving from Suddha Saveri), only gaining broad acceptance among Northern rasikas around the mid-20th century. Prakriti with Jaldhar Kedar and Shuddha Malhar, Durga is principally differentiated via a greater emphasis on shuddha Dha (the only ‘imperfect’ swara). Also see the proximate Durgawati, Jhinjhoti, and Mangal Bhairav.
–Venkatesh Kumar (2010)–
• Raag Durgawati •
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A rare shadav raga, matching the swara set of ‘Durga plus komal ni’ (or ‘Kafi/Khamaj no Ga’). The inclusion of ni in avroh opens up Bageshri-like uttarang motions (SnDm…), with the rest of the raga generally trending towards Durga (e.g. RmPD; PDm; mRDS). Seemingly an invention of Maihar bansuriya Hariprasad Chaurasia, based on the lack of renditions by anyone else: with his most prominent recording being a 1997 Navras release (paired with the similarly folksy Mishra Shivranjani). Not to be confused with Durgeshwari (in either of its forms) – and also see the prakriti Gorakh Kalyan and Narayani. Further information welcome!
–Hariprasad Chaurasia (1997)–
• Raag Ek Prakar ki Kauns •
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An invention of Imdadkhani sitarist Rais Khan (who, with a pleasing lack of pretention, named his new raga ‘A Type of Kauns’). From Martyn Clayton’s excellent liner notes to a 1985 Navras recording: “Indeed an unusual raga…Rais Khan’s ‘Ek Prakar ki Kauns’ is based on Malkauns, but incorporates two extra notes [shuddha Ga & Ni]. The use of these notes is dramatic…a fascinating musical experiment”. Shuddha Ni is first introduced via a lingering nNS meend, sometimes replacing Sa in mandra passages (e.g. nNnd), while the ascending shuddha Ga can bring strong shades of Jog (e.g. GmgS) – with both the extra swaras also being used chromatically (e.g. mGgGm). Also see Enayetkhani Kanada (another ‘double-Ga, double-Ni’ raga, created by Rais’ uncle Vilayat Khan), as well as Kartik Kumar’s Tulsikauns (which takes the swara-shape of ‘Malkauns double-Ni’, thus offering a similarly bluesy ma-murchana: i.e. ‘mdnNS>SgmMG‘). Also recorded by Maihar sarodiya Bahadur Khan (Ali Akbar Khan’s cousin, no relation to Rais).
–Rais Khan (1993)–
• Raag Enayetkhani Kanada •
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Invented by sitarist Vilayat Khan as a tribute to his father, legendary innovator Enayet Khan (although when the raga first surfaced, circa 1981, he was calling it ‘Vilayat Khani Kanada’ instead…). As per fellow Imdadkhani sitarist-scholar Deepak Raja’s excellent analysis, the raga runs along the lines of “Darbari with the addition of two ‘alien swaras’ in the ascent [shuddha Ga & Ni]…Phrases with the alien swaras are always sandwiched between typical Darbari phrases, and blend into the new melodic entity with a distinctive emotional flavour”. He also details how Darbari’s character “is preserved by keeping the raga firmly anchored in the lower half of the melodic canvas, with very sparing development in the upper tetrachord and higher octave”. Khan’s most prominent recording is laden with long meend, which occasionally render the adjacent ni-Ni positions consecutively. Seemingly unperformed by anyone besides its creator (also see his other inventions, e.g. Madhuvanti, Sanjh Saravali, and Pancham se Pilu).
–Vilayat Khan (2001)–
• Raag Faridi Todi •
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A raga known, as of 2025, through a single rendition: Supriyo Maitro’s spellbinding vocal tribute to his Dagarvani forebear Zia Fariduddin Dagar, live from the 2018 Faridi Samorah Festival in Bhopal with Aditya Deep on pakhawaj (“in remembrance of [Zia’s] 86th birthday, the festival was a musical tribute to the Ustad by his disciples, in fond memory of him”). Faridi Todi’s unique SrgGMdnS shape – familiar to jazz musicians as the ‘Superlocrian/Altered’ scale – offers few consonant resolutions to Sa, requiring performers to construct a delicate balance of other sangatis around an unstable core. Maitro makes sparing use of shuddha Ga (the only shuddha swara on offer), confining it to the phrases SrgGMd and SndMG, and his ascending lines tend to omit ni – leaving a pentatonic focus on SrgMdS (pakad: gMd d/S; reminiscent of Firozkhani Todi). Compare to the rest of its murchana set (Charukeshi, Patdeep, Ahiri, Vachaspati), as well as to Mangal Gujari (the ‘komal ga only’ version of the scale) and Shrutivardhini (another raga linked to Zia Fariduddin Dagar). I’m currently researching more about the raga…further information welcome!
–Supriyo Maitro (2018)–
• Raag Firozkhani Todi •
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A fascinating audav raga formed by removing the Ni from Gujiri Todi – leaving an angular pentatonic shape which, aside from Sa, contains no shuddha swaras (n.b. the same scale is also known as ‘Audav Todi’ and ‘Chaya Todi’: although the latter title is separately applied to fusions of Chaya and Todi). The lack of consonant resolutions to Sa brings a disbalanced mood, allowing performers to intersperse Todi’s rgrS phrase with angular melodic motions which may hint at other ragas via murchana – in particular, the scale resembles Jog’s aroha if taken from dha (dSrgMd > SGmPnS), and Bageshri’s aroha if taken from ga (gMdSrG > SgmDnS). Sufiyana santooriya Bhajan Sopori uses his instrument’s 123 strings to showcase the scale’s harmonic properties, further strengthening the dha-ga sangati and even making Sa feel like the ‘odd one out’ in places (see Marwa for another example of this effect). Also recorded by Kashyap Bandhu (Benares gharana), Joydeep Mukherjee (on sursingar), and Bhai Gurmeet Singh Shant (as a lively kirtan). Named, in its ‘Firozkhani Todi’ guise, for Firoz Khan ‘Adarang’: a renowned early 18th-century singer who, with his uncle ‘Sadarang’, helped to shape the future of khayal via their innovations at the court of the Mughal Emperor Muhammad Shah. The pair composed hundreds of bandishen, many of which are still in circulation today, and may also have been responsible for introducing the sitar to Delhi – hear Abhirang set Adarang’s poetry to the raga. Compare to the similarly-titled Adarangi Todi (the ragas may share historic overlap), as well as to Gujiri Todi (add Ni), Mangal Gujari (add ni), and Komal Ramkali (add Pa+ni) – and to other scales which contain no shuddha swaras.
–Bhajan Sopori (1997)–
• Raag Gagan Vihang •
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As per Ocean of Ragas, Gagan Vihang (Sanskrit: ‘Birds of Heaven’) “was composed by Pandit Dinkar Kaikini…we find features of Bihag, Savani, Nand, and Mand, although the raga maintains its independent melody [via] unique phrases such as SRPGm, GmRS, NDmP” – while others also point to the influence of Shankara. The Agra khayal innovator (also the father of tabla maestro Yogesh Samsi) recorded his creation several times, but few have followed. Compare to the many other Bilawal-prakriti ragas listed below – and also see Kaikini’s other creations, including Gunaranjani and Bayati (an intriguing ‘quarter-tonal’ raga, adapted from a Middle Eastern maqam).
–Dinkar Kaikini (1987)–
• Raag Gandhari •
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Described by Parrikar as “an Asavariant of ancient vintage, [with] no consensus regarding its contemporary swarupa”, the modern Gandhari usually appears in double-Re form – although some variants also employ double-Ga and/or double-Dha. Many renditions follow a ‘Jaunpuri-plus’ framework, seasoning this raga with komal re in concluding phrases (e.g. nPndPmg, grgrS). Sometimes known as ‘Gandhari Todi’, indicative of the Todi-ang available in descending phrases (also see the prakriti Bahaduri Todi, as well as the related Dev Gandhar and Devgandhari Todi).
–Shashwati Mandal (2017)–
• Raag Gangeshwari •
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Like Parameshwari and Rangeshwari, Gangeshwari (‘Lordess of the Ganges River’) was created by Ravi Shankar in 1968, via murchana rotation of his newly-invented Kameshwari (itself dreamed up during a car ride through Bengal). Its unique swara set most closely resembles a ‘no Re’ version of either Charukeshi or Basant Mukhari (or alternatively, ‘Gopika Basant shuddha Ga’) – with an ‘all-shuddha’ poorvang (SGm) and ‘all-komal’ uttarang (PdnS). Like the rest of its murchana set, the raga’s phraseology remains open and uncodified, with little risk of trespass on the bounds of other ragas. Also see Ganga: a 2018 invention of Shankar’s santoor student Tarun Bhattacharya, also composed in honour of the Holy River (soon followed by his Triveni: “a tribute to the three rivers of India: the Ganga, Yamuna, & Narmada”).
–Ravi Shankar (1972)–
• Raag Gaoti •
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Sarodiya Rahul Bhattacharya describes the late-afternoon Gaoti as “an underutilised gem…a pleasant, fulfilled feeling…like enjoying a perfume without actually knowing why”. Also known as ‘Gawati’, differences of opinion persist as to whether the raga is identical to Bheem: while some claim that Bheem can be distinguished by its occasional use of komal ga in taar saptak, this facet is also evident in plenty of Gaoti renditions, such as the stellar interpretation of Acharya Jayanta Bose. And, while Agra-Gwalior vocalist Prabhakar Karekar considers the ragas indistinguishable (having remarked that he “had been taught the raga under the name Bheem”), the liner notes to a Nikhil Banerjee album state that “Gaoti has the same aroha-avroh as Bheem, but consistently uses the phrases nSDP and GmRnS. Bheem, on the other hand, often uses mPGRS and mPGmGRS” (also noting that “Both ragas recall their kinship with Bhimpalasi through the use of komal ga in the upper octave [as SgRS]…Unlike Bhimpalasi, however, Re and Dha are more prominent, and ma is weaker and used in a vakra fashion”). Straightforward audav ascents are set against sampurna descending lines which tend to run in ‘paired’ sequences (e.g. nS, DP, mP, Gm, RS). While its precise genesis is unclear, Kuldeep Kumar describes it as “a raga popularised by the legendary Ustad Bade Ghulam Ali Khan, but not attempted by many instrumentalists” (n.b. quite a few superb instrumental takes are available, including by Shivkumar Sharma on santoor and Vishwa Mohan Bhatt on mohan veena – and, as pointed out by reader Ethan Gilbert, the divine 80-min rendition on Nikhil Banerjee’s Amsterdam 1984 album).
–Acharya Jayanta Bose (2013)–
• Raag Gara •
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Gara is a disparate melodic lineage, derived from thumri compositions of centuries past: Manuel’s research describes it as “a loose, informal melodic entity until the 18th century, after which [its] grammar was organised by classically trained musicians…like Kafi, Pilu, Jungala, Barwa, and Zila”. Often close to Jaijaiwanti, the modern Gara may also draw from Pilu, Khamaj, and Jhinjhoti, setting their melodies within a vakra framework focused on mandra-madhya saptak: low Pa is used as the scale-base, and low Sa is home to a pakad of DnSNS [Also see Pancham se Gara (‘Gara from Pa’) a murchana-based derivative which rotates this catchphrase upwards a perfect 5th to form GmPMP, as well as Madhyam se Gara, rotated a perfect 4th to give RgmGm]. Typically considered an evening or night raga (although Bhatkhande classified it as time-neutral) – the liner notes to a 1966 Nikhil Banerjee album describe Gara as ”a traditional evening raga of a somewhat less serious nature, light in spirit and emotional in character, signifying sringara rasa”. Refer to Deepak Raja’s superb analysis for more (“Conventional wisdom regards Gara as vivacious and romantic…Vilayat Khan adopts the Pilu-Jhinjhoti axis of the raga described by Bhatkhande, however, towards the upper end of the melodic canvas, [he] tilts mildly towards Jaijaiwanti of the Bageshri-ang…).
–Ravi Shankar (2001)–
• Raag Gaud •
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Now lying dormant, Gaud – assumed to have been named for its likely origins in the archaic Gaudadesha region – is best-known via its parental role in compounds such as Gaud Malhar, Gaud Sarang, and Gaud Bahar. In spite of its modern scarcity, the raga played a vital role in Hindustani history, turning up in numerous ragmala paintings and finding mention in texts such as Shrikantha’s Rasakaumudi (c.1575: along with Gaud Malhar) and the medieval Raga Nirupanam (“Gaud is the son of Shri. Fond of white robes, he is fair, adorned with all ornaments, holding a sword in hand, and borne by a serpent…”). Despite the raga’s great historic significance, there is little information on its ‘pure’ form, meaning that we must instead look to its surviving DNA. Parrikar elaborates the Gaud elements in Gaud Malhar (SRGm, mGmGRGS, RGm, Pm; SRGGm, mGm, P), highlighting how the “strong, glowing ma stands out” – corroborated by Tanarang (SRGm; mGm; GRG(R)S; RGmPm) and Dr. Gita Banerjee’s Raag Shastra Vol.1 (p.101: SGRmG, PmG, GRmG, mRS, SRNSG, G, RGRmG). The future of Gaud remains uncertain, with vanishingly few living masters ever having learned the raga in its own right. Nevertheless, I prefer to label it ‘dormant’ rather than ‘extinct’ – my hope is that gurus may still be out there who can pass on its melodies to future generations (refer to instances of ‘raga resurrection’ such as Khem Kalyan and Komal Ramkali). UPDATE [Nov 2025]: I finally discovered a recording! Many thanks to Manikbua Thakurdas disciple Geeta Athalekar, who set a superb composition to the rare 11-beat ‘Manibandh taal’ during one of her guru’s lec-dems (“This is the first time that this raga is on YouTube…It is a sampurna raga [with] a vakra chalan…ascending with [phrases like] NSGRmGP, mPDNS…”).
–Geeta Athalekar (2020)–
• Raag Gaud Malhar •
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An ancient blend of Shuddha Malhar and the now-extinct Gaud, also seasoned with shades of Alhaiya Bilawal, which finds mention in medieval works such as Shrikantha’s 16th-century Rasakaumudi treatise. Parrikar highlights the “strong, glowing ma”, which serves to join a Gaud-like poorvang (SRGm, mGmPm) to uttarang phrases from Shuddha Malhar (mP(S)DS) and Bilawal (PPNDNS). Other Malharic material may include m(m)R; (m)RP – although some artists argue that ‘pure’ renditions should exclude Miyan ki Malhar’s distinctive nDNS phrase, given Miyan ki Malhar’s status as a later invention (Parrikar: “the Malhar purist considers it at best superfluous, and at worst injurious…”). Dhrupad musicians often include both forms of Ga, while others may render the swara komal or omit it entirely [n.b. a less frequent form of the raga is in existence, which strays closer to Khamaj]. Popular in filmi – and not to be confused with Gaudgiri Malhar.
–Kishori Amonkar (2003)–
• Raag Gaud Sarang •
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Aside from its afternoon designation, Gaud Sarang carries no discernible hints of the Sarang family – running more like a vakra Bihag variant seasoned by a GRmGPRS pakad amongst other melodic quirks (some refer to it as ‘Din ki Bihag’: ‘Daytime Bihag’). Shuddha ma is strong, but not used as a nyas, with its enclosing swaras preferred as pause-points instead (Ga & Pa). Omkarnath Thakur’s Sangitanjali Vol.4 notes that the raga “can bring a serious mood when performed in vilambit; however it can also evoke a hopeful and energetic atmosphere in madhya-drut” (in particular, the wide P/N and P\R jumps are challenging to render at high speeds) – while Parrikar points to “proximate melodies such as Kedar, Hameer, and Nand”, and “a Gaud-inspired tonal byte [SGRmG, GmGP, PmG, SPmG], which carries the soul, or if you will, the G-spot, of Gaud Sarang…”). Associated with shringar rasa.
–Kumar Mardur (2014)–
• Raag Gaudgiri Malhar •
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An engrossing raga of uncertain origin, Gaudgiri Malhar is most prominently associated with Mewati pioneer Pandit Jasraj – although Gwalior stalwart Haribhau Ghangrekar and others were performing it even before this. Also sung by Jasraj’s brother Pratap Narayan and disciple Hemang Mehta, as well as Kirana vocalist Moumita Mitra – who describes it as a combination of Gaud (SRGm, RGRmGmRS), Kafi (PDnDP, mgRS), and [Megh] Malhar (mR, RP, nP), suggesting nyas of Sa/ma/Pa and a vadi-samvadi of ma-Sa (and including flourishes of shuddha Ga and Dha in her rendition). Also refer to R.K. Das’ comments on Pratap Narayan’s rendition: “[I’ve] heard a pentatonic variety of Gaud Malhar from Ustad Mashkoor Ali Khan of Kirana, most probably [this] is the root of [Narayan’s] recording…He does not use komal ga, but his brother does…the way Narayan sings is more akin to an amalgamation with Sarang”. Despite their similar nomenclature, the raga is distinct from Gaud Malhar (and the ultra-rare Gondgiri Malhar). Compare and contrast to the prakriti Suha and Nayaki Kanada.
–Pandit Jasraj (~1980s)–
• Raag Gauri •
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Described by Deepak Raja as “difficult to render in its purity”, Gauri is associated with viraha shringara (‘the piety arising from the separation of lovers’). The raga had at least two distinct forms as far back as the 16th century, and continues to manifest in several variations – principally a main Bhairav-ang ‘shuddha ma’ incarnation, and also in various Poorvi-ang ‘tivra Ma’ renditions (unpacked in Manjiri Asanare-Kelkar’s superb Amodini demo lesson below). In the predominant Bhairav-ang interpretation, mandra Ni is a nyas (à la Kalingada), while re and dha should not be paused on – while some artists choose to omit Ga and dha in aroha. Considered a sandhiprakash raga, but – unlike Bhairav – is best suited to the dusk hours.
–Sharad Sathe (1995)–
• Raag Gauri Basant •
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Introduced by prolific raga creator Kumar Gandharva via fusing Gauri with Basant’s tivra Ma incarnation. His original renditions also prominently showcase a Bhairav-ang G\r slide – but this fragment lacks its usual support from shuddha ma above, instead being followed in the bandish by Basant-like turns such as GPd; PMPG (…this shift is timed to coincide precisely with his singing of the word ‘basanti’ [‘spring’]: audible here). Since taken up by his grandson Bhuvanesh Komkali, and Joydeep Mukherjee has performed it on the rare Radikha Mohanveena (accompanied by Subashish Sabayasachi, “the first ambidextrous percussionist of India”). Also see other Basant fusions such as Malti Basant and Basanti Kanada, as well as Gaurimanjari (‘Bouquet of Gauris’) – plus other intriguing Gandharva creations including Madhusurja, Lagan Gandhar, Bhavmat Bhairav, and Saheli Todi.
–Kumar Gandharva (1974)–
• Raag Gaurimanjari •
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An intricate ten-toned raga created by Ali Akbar Khan via blending ideas from across the Lalit-Gauri spectrum (Gaurimanjari: ‘Bouquet of Gauris’) – notable for its winding melodic motions and dense, crowded swara-space (some renditions employ all swaras except komal ga). Its core form also possesses the ultra-rare property of rotational symmetry (i.e. the interval sequence can be rotated to produce an identical copy of the original, in this case 180o: its 5th murchana). This is probably of fairly limited consequence given the raga’s overall complexity, but Khan and others – notably his student Brij Bhushan Kabra – have found fruit in exploring its wide-open melodic geometries, which allow for many subtle sub-symmetries (as per a 2024 email from his senior disciple Ken Zuckerman, “I’m currently working on Gaurimanjari: this is probably the most complicated of all Khansahib’s ragas…”). Compare to numerous other AAK-created ragas, notably including Chandranandan, Prabhakali, Malayalam, Medhavi, and Suha Todi.
–Ali Akbar Khan (1970s)–
• Raag Gopika Basant •
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A hexatonic raga of bewitching beauty, Gopika Basant matches the swaras of ‘Asavari no Re’ (or ‘Malkauns add Pa’) – while also inviting shades of Bhairavi from ga upwards. The Sa-ma sangati is strong, and, as noted by Nazir Ali Jairazbhoy, descents can mirror the Malkauns-style scheme of “parallel conjunct tetrachords by oblique use of the Pa” (e.g. in ndm, P(g), mgS: where Pa separates two phrases of identical intervallic shape). While its origins seem to lie in the South Indian Gopikavasantham, renditions now match more closely to the allied Hindolavasantham via the absence of Re – although the raga’s Hindustani incarnation remains tantalisingly rare (to my ears, a bewildering situation…).
–Acharya Jayanta Bose (1990)–
• Raag Gorakh Kalyan •
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A spacious, folksy raga of the late evening, Gorakh Kalyan (named for the Gorakhpur region of Uttar Pradesh) has fabled associations with Saint Gorakhnath, an 11th-century yogi mystic-musician who is said to have travelled throughout the Subcontinent in search of spiritual wisdom and sonic enrichment. Despite its name, the raga’s modern form has no discernible links to the Kalyan-ang, instead focusing on Ga-skipping motions such as SRm; RmRSn. Some performers include only four swaras in aroha (SRmD), with scholars linking this facet to its possible origins in a now-extinct audav raga known as ‘Gorakhi’ – itself an offshoot of the ‘chatuswari’ Bhavani (SRmD). This upward sparsity leaves room for winding lines in the descent, which may often resolve to the komal ni of mandra saptak (e.g. Praveen Sheolikar’s outstanding violin rendition below). Prakriti with Narayani and Durgawati – and compare to proximate scales such as Saraswati (the same scale with tivra Ma instead) and Miyan ki Sarang (which allows both Ni).
–Praveen Sheolikar (2018)–
• Raag Gujiri Todi •
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A popular Todi variant named for its association with Gujarat, India’s Westernmost state. Linked to the morning hours, it takes a similar swara set to the main Todi, distinguishing itself by omitting Pa throughout. Dagarvani beenkar Bahauddin Dagar chooses to intone the raga’s Sa (the only ‘detached’ swara) with a slightly higher sruti than that of the tanpura, adjusted in accordance with the sun’s daily arc (see non-zero Sa). Tanarnag cites a mood of “sweetness [and] karuna”, revolving around a deergha komal re. Gujiri Todi is also an exact murchana of Jog and Brindabani Sarang.
–Parveen Sultana (2007)–
• Raag Gunakri •
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Taking the swaras of ‘Bhairav no Ga/Ni’, Gunakri – described by AUTRIM as “serious and peaceful” – brings out the character of its parent raga via an oscillating komal re, and movements patterns including Sd, dP and SdSr, rS (although Jairazbhoy prefers to analyse it via the geometries of Basant Mukhari). Bose gives a neat ‘rising-falling’ pakad of mPd, mrS, which is often handled with long slides (e.g. d/S; m\r), while Vidyadhar Vyas’ version seasons the raga’s audav core with slight touches of Ga and Ni (helping to avoid shades of Jogiya’s aroha, which takes the same swaras). Not the same as Gunkali (although the ragas are prakriti, and share significant melodic overlap…and renditions of each are sometimes mistitled as the other).
–Vidyadhar Vyas (1997)–
• Raag Gunji Kanada •
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A Gwalior gharana favourite which blends Malgunji and Kaunsi Kanada, principally via inserting the former’s catchphrase of RnSRG, Gm (also found in Dev Gandhar) into the broader framework of the latter – although some sources also cite vital influences from Adana and Bahar (e.g. mDnS). Modern renditions tend to take the komal dha, although a shuddha Dha variant has also circulated in the recent past (also turning up as an ornamental kanswar in other renditions). Ocean of Ragas lists it as a creation of pioneering vocalist and educator Vishnu Digambar Paluskar (1872-1931), with only a handful of other artists having added it to their concert repertoire over the years since (notably including Ali Akbar Khan, Nikhil Banerjee, Pandit Jasraj, & Purbayan Chatterjee). Also hear Gunjikauns.
–Pandit Jasraj (1994)–
• Raag Gunkali •
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An enchanting morning raga, matching the swara set of ‘Bhupali komal re/dha’ (or ‘Shobhawari komal re’), described by Tanarang as “an epitome of bhakti and karuna…straightforward, and expandable in all three octaves”. While audav at its core, multivariate forms of the raga are in existence: some include shades of shuddha Ga in avroh (bringing hints of Bhairav), and Kumar Gandharva’s ever-unconventional take also features varied use of both Ga and Ni – while Aarshin Karande’s rendition of a Sufi-infused bandish exemplifies an older Jogiya-ang interpretation from the Mewati tradition. Also refer to a concise demo by Ajoy Chakraborty, a superb performance by Kedar Bodas (transcribed below), and a captivating bandish by Ramrang (“describing Shiva’s visit to Brindavan to see baby Krishna, the text verbalises the great Yogi’s response to an apprehensive Jashoda”). Generally considered distinct to Gunakri, despite considerable overlap – with their basic SrmPdS scale shape also forming an exact Ga-murchana of Kaushik Dhwani – and approximating the ‘In / Miyakobushi’ mode of Japanese court music.
–Kedar Bodas (2015)–
• Raag Hameer •
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A winding raga of complex historical lineage, Hameer (‘Royal, Regal’) enjoys a steady presence on the modern concert circuit. Re is weak in aroha, and Tanarang links the shuddha Dha vadi to “the enthusiasm and courage of warriors”, giving a pakad of GMND; DDP and uttarang-focused phrases such as Gm(N)DNS; PDPPS; MPDNS. Touches of komal ni can be taken in ascent, and both Ma positions are joined in vakra fashion on the way down (e.g. MPGmRS). Parrikar summarises the raga as “a traditional denizen of considerable heft, known to project a vigorous, dramatic mein…[offering] a variety of old dhrupad, dhamar, and khayal compositions”, adding that “it is not a ‘scalar’ raga, amenable to reconstitution with up-and-down phrases”. Refer to recordings by Krishnarao Shankar Pandit and Yeshwantbua Joshi, as well as an AUTRIM pitch-graph tracing an Ajoy Chakraborty rendition – plus the Mohammed Rafi classic Madhuban Mein Radhika Nache Re (from the 1960 film Kohinoor). Also see Kedar and Kamod, which lie nearby.
–Budhaditya Mukherjee (2017)–
• Raag Hansa Narayani •
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Taking the shape of ‘Puriya Dhanashree minus dha’, Hansa Narayani also presents uttarang shades of Hansadhwani (PNS): another swan-related raga with Carnatic roots (‘Hansa’ suggests a swan-riding image of Saraswati, the four-armed Hindu goddess of music and learning, and ‘Narayani’ refers to an incarnation of Lakshmi, goddess of wealth and fortune: collectively covering two-thirds of the ‘Tridevi’). Seemingly popularised by Pannalal Ghosh (“the wizard of the bamboo”), the raga remains rare, with melodic motions often focusing on Pa and Sa as nyas. Also refer to a short Shree-like take by Bismillah Khan (below), as well as Abhirang’s khayal interpretation.
–Bismillah Khan (1996)–
• Raag Hansadhwani •
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Hansadhwani translates to ‘Call of Swans’ – a creature with rich cultural associations in the Subcontinent (Saraswati, goddess of music and learning, is often depicted atop a swan: said to symbolise purity, discernment, and the process of breathing). Originally imported from a Carnatic ragam, the raga’s pentatonic simplicity invites the listener towards the calm of nature, with a strong vadi-samvadi pairing of Sa-Pa retaining a central reassurance amidst what Jairazbhoy describes as “an inherently unbalanced scale”. As per a moving account sent in by psychologist and sound practitioner Vinod Mudliar in early 2024, listening to Vijay Kannan’s solo bansuri renditions of Hansadhwani helped him to cope during the strains of his cancer treatment in 2010 (Mudliar now “intends to conduct experiments studying brain waves, to see the effect of certain ragas on patients who are undergoing chemotherapy and radiotherapy…”). Refer to further performances by Parveen Sultana (alap transcribed below), Shivkumar Sharma, and Hariprasad Chaurasia, as well as a special 2008 concert involving 1000 sitarists. Compare to related forms including Shankara (add Dha), Bhupali (swap Ni for Dha), and the ultra-rare Veenavadini (komal ni instead) – as well as compounds such as Pannalal Ghosh’s Hansa Narayani, and other ragas linked to the same goddess (e.g. Saraswati and Ambika Sarang).
–Parveen Sultana (2018)–
• Raag Hanskinkini •
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Running something like a ‘double-Ga, double-Ni Dhanashree’, Hanskinkini is full of florid alankars and intricate melodic turns – reflected in the meaning of its name, which translates as ‘swan’ + ‘small tinkling ornament’. Performers may draw on the melodic flexibilities of other ‘double Ga+Ni’ ragas including Pilu and Jaijaiwanti, while preserving the Dhanashree-ang kernel via phrases such as mPnDP; SnDP; mPGRS (Tanarang: “a flittering, volatile melody”). Famously highlighted by Lata Mangeshkar in the 1952 film Naya Zamana (Kahan Jate Ho Toota Dil Hamara), the raga’s direct lineage seems to stretch back to at least the era of Sadarang (~17th century), although detailed historical records are hard to come by. Aneesh Pradhan recommends the renditions of D.V. Paluskar and Shruti Sadolikar (also noting that “curiously, the image of the ‘hamsa-mithun’ [swan-couple], a symbol of eternal love, seems missing in Hindustani compositions: intriguing, since one encounters birds in other compositions…”). Also see Patdeepaki, an intertwined form which prefers the flavours of Bhimpalasi to those of Dhanashree.
–Soumik Datta (2018)–
• Raag Harikauns •
S-g-M-D-n-S
Among the strangest of pentatonic scales, Harikauns resembles ‘Madhukant no Re/Pa’ or ‘Madhukauns with Dha-for-Pa’ (or ‘Malkauns with the middle two swaras raised’) – forming a ‘diminished square’ of 3-semitone jumps (SgMD) plus a (symmetry-destroying) komal ni. Aside from a natural uttarang focus, the raga allows for near-complete freedom of motion – but presents inherent challenges to any who attempt it, with all swaras except ga being imperfect, and the dissonant Ma-ni sangati left in stark focus (a Telegraph India critic once described it as the “one of the ugliest and most difficult to sing ever conceived”, in a nevertheless glowing review of an Ulhas Kashalkar concert: mis-heard as ‘Holikauns’). While most effective renditions I can find rely heavily on the ornamental flexibility of the human voice (e.g. Amir Khan, Prabha Atre, Jitendra Abhisheki), my all-time favourite has to be Nasir Ahmed’s incredible take on the electric mandolin, which turns instead to the rapid scale-navigatory capabilities afforded by his smaller fretboard. Also see Tivrakauns (the same scale with komal dha).
–Nasir Ahmed (2003)–
• Raag Hem Bihag •
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Often cited as an invention of Ravi Shankar, Hem Bihag was in fact devised by his teacher Allauddin Khan – as noted by Shankar & Ali Akbar Khan when they chose it to open a tribute concert just a few weeks on from their guru’s 1972 death, at the reputed age of 110 (below: “we begin with a creation of his, a night raga…”). Allauddin himself never recorded it (although you can hear him exploring both its parents on the violin: Hem & Bihag) – meaning that modern renditions instead follow after Shankar, Ali Akbar, and Nikhil Banerjee’s various takes, which tend to exhibit a weak Dha, strong Ni, and the avoidance of Re in aroha. The ‘Hem’ in the name refers to Hemant – another Khansaab invention which builds from a Bhinna Shadja base – rather than Khem Kalyan (although I’ve heard occasional mention of another, older species of ‘Hem Bihag’, which does draw from the latter raga).
–Ravi Shankar & Ali Akbar Khan (1972)–
• Raag Hemant •
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Described by Deepak Raja as “amongst the most charming melodic entities to have gained currency in the last 50 years”, Hemant’s creation is often credited to Ravi Shankar, who began performing it from the 1940s onwards (some say it featured in his very first concert) – however it more likely originated with his guru Allauddin Khan some time in the decades prior (according to one tale, Shankar “played Hemant on an All India Radio broadcast around 1944: Allauddin Khan was so pleased with Pandit-ji’s interpretation that he ‘presented’ the raga to him thereafter…”). The melodic kernel may be older still: Raja points to a rare Dagarvani form known as ‘Kandrima’, as well as a Khemchand Prakash composition sung by K.L. Saigal in the 1942 Tansen film. Likely connected to archaic forms of Kaushik Dhwani, Hemant adds Re and Pa in avroh, with Pa elaborated ornamentally, and the ‘straight line’ GRS often used in concluding motions. Summarised by Tanarang as “deep and soothing…easily expandable in all octaves”. Also refer to renditions by Sultan Khan, Sharan Rani, Brij Bhushan Kabra, and Vilayat Khan (who titles it ‘Panchama’: possibly the raga’s original name, albeit unconnected to the main Pancham – while ‘Hemant’ means ‘Height of Winter’).
–Abhishek & Praashekh Borkar (2019)–
• Raag Hemavati •
S-R-g-M-P-D-n-S
Adopted from the 58th Carnatic melakarta, Hemavati matches the swaras of ‘Kafi tivra Ma’, ‘Madhuvanti komal ni’, or ‘Vachaspati komal ga’. Prominently associated with Hariprasad Chaurasia, although it is unclear who may have first borrowed the scale from the South: Abdul Halim Jaffer Khan also recorded it, as has Amjad Ali Khan, with broad melodic variance evident between each individual interpretation. Refer to an engrossing compendium of Chaurasia compositions by his nephew Rakesh, a santoor interpretation by Sandip Chatterjee, and a double-Ni take by Bhimsen Joshi (although some releases title this track as ‘Madhuvanti Malhar’: see Tanseni Madhuvanti) – plus Southern interpretations from L. Subramaniam and Mandolin Srinivas. Also see the prakriti (and arguably indistinct) Madhukant, as well as Harikauns, Tivrakauns, & Madhukauns: a trio of audav ragas which share Hemavati’s curious ga/Ma/ni combo. Pleasingly, Hemavati’s scale also matches the main hook of Britney Spears’ Toxic (SS gRSRg, (P)MR gRS; PPDDn mnD…).
–Hariprasad Chaurasia (1998)–
• Raag Hemshri •
S-g-m-P-nN-S
A night raga created by renowned Gwalior composer and vocalist Vishwanath Rao Ringe ‘Tanarang’, essentially equivalent to ‘Tilang komal ga’. In his own summary (seemingly the only source of melodic information): “the mood is light…a very sweet melody that manifests readily in the following combinations [e.g. SgmPm, gmPnPNNS; PNSnP; PNSgNS]”. Re is banned entirely, while the raga is distinguished from Dhani by the use of double-Ni. Refer to Vishwajat’s rendition below – and also see other Tanarang creations including Sundarkauns, Saraswati Kedar, and Jogeshwari Pancham.
–Vishwajeet Ringe (2020)–
• Raag Hindol •
S-G-M-D-N-S
A captivating, challenging audav raga with all swaras appearing in their highest specific positions (i.e. no komals, and Ma, if present, is tivra: also see Bhupali, Hansadhwani, & Adbhut Kalyan). The name translates as ‘swinging’: indicative of the raga’s melodic character, which is built around ‘swaying’ motions between a trio of nyas (Sa, Ga, Dha) – with Ni played weakly and often omitted in ascent (rendering it ‘surtar’). Portrayed in classical ragmala paintings with imagery of Krishna sitting on a swing in seductive pose, Hindol also has mythic links to Kamadeva, Hindu deity of erotic love and romantic desire (“a handsome young man decked with ornaments, armed with a sugarcane bow and shooting arrows of flowers”). Intriguingly, the similarly-named Carnatic ‘Hindolam’ matches the swaras of the Hindustani Malkauns: leading Jairazbhoy to speculate that Hindol’s swara set may have arisen via a “semitonal shift of the ground note” (i.e. SGMDNS = ‘SgmdnS with Sa lowered a semitone’ – loosely akin to the idea of ‘altered chords’ in jazz).
–Pandit Jasraj (2002)–
• Raag Hindolita •
S-G-mM-P-D-N-S
A blend of Hindol and Lalit, seemingly introduced by Kirana master Bhimsen Joshi – who recorded it a handful of times over the years, including at the 1992 Sawai Gandharva Festival with Zakir Hussain, and for his 1997 Rarely-Heard Ragas album (also featuring Jaijaiwanti Nat and Bageshri Bahar). Given the sparsity of its recorded history, it remains a ‘composition-centred’ raga: offering little to interpret besides Joshi’s specific bandish of choice. Nani Wadekar adds that: “Bhimsen set his Todi cheez [Airi Mayi Aaj Shubh Mangal] in a totally different raga, which he used to sing a lot in the late 1980s…called ‘Hindolita’ in a newspaper review”. Also superbly recorded by Jitendra Abhisheki, who maps an even more radical path through Lalit’s adjacent Ma positions and Hindol’s ‘swinging’ ornaments.
–Bhimsen Joshi (1997)–
• Raag Hussaini Kanada •
S-R-g-m-P-D-n-S
Cited by Aarshin Karande as a creation of Hussain Shah, the last Emperor of Jaipur’s Sharqi Dynasty (1458-1505) – who found time for musical innovation amidst a perpetually violent, invasion-laden reign (also see Jungala). Karande considers Hussaini Kanada to be a blend of Nayaki Kanada and Shuddha Bahar (“this raga uniquely extracts a mood of joyous infatuation, and this bandish focuses on devotion to Lord Krishna”), while Bose describes it as “a pre-midnight raga [with] a flavour of Bahar”, also pointing to Shahana, Darbari, and Mudriki Kanada – and Parrikar casts it as “straddling the fence dividing Shahana and Raisa…with a peculiar shuddha Dha-laden phrase denoting the ‘Hussaini’ tag” [this phrase is given in Manjiri Asanare-Kelkar’s breakdown of Hussaini Todi as mPD, (SnS)nS, m, mPDnS, with a mid-sruti Ni position in the first ornament: also see sakari Ni]. While often described as rare, a variety of artists have recorded effective renditions over the years: notably including vocalists Jasraj, Ramrang, Sarahang, Omkarnath Thakur, Jitendra Abhisheki, & Acharya Jayanta Bose, as well as Sanjoy Bandopadhyay on sitar and Suvir Misra on rudra veena.
–Pandit Jasraj (~1990s)–
• Raag Hussaini Todi •
S-R-g-m-P-D-nN-S
A rare raga which appears in at least two modern-day variants. The predominant Jaipur-Atrauli interpretation takes the swaras of ‘Kafi double-Ni’, eschewing the Todi-ang altogether: Manjiri Asanare-Kelkar’s ever-excellent melodic breakdown describes it as “Desi with a ‘Hussaini’ phrase” [a sruti-laden mPD, S(nSN)S, m, mPDnS] – adding that this phrase also turns up in the ‘other’ version of Hussaini Todi, and also in the allied Hussaini Kanada (also cautioning that “there are some peculiar swara-lagavs, which are beyond grammar”: see full transcription below). The raga’s second incarnation – which runs more like a double-Ma blend of Todi, Asavari, and Hussaini Kanada – displays wide variance, with Agra vocalist Latafat Hussain Khan’s version appearing to be a rework of Desi Todi, even resembling a ‘shuddha Dha Darbari’ in places – and Abhirang’s, working from a Ramrang bandish, taking characteristic descending motions of SPnP; mPDnP; dmPg; rgrS. Also performed by Gwalior stalwart V.R. Athavale as part of an intriguing ‘trio of Todis’ along with Lachari Todi and Bhupali Todi.
–Vinayak Athavale (~1990s)–
• Raag Imratkauns •
S-R-G-m-d-n-S
Devised by Imdadkhani sitar and surbahar virtuoso Imrat Khan, with a swara set resembling ‘Charukeshi no Pa’. This mid-scale space gives a strong poorvang-uttarang separation, amidst the strange geometric regularity of the consecutive ‘2-2-2-2’ run (dnSRG: just a ma-to-Ma nudge from matching the whole-tone scale, a.k.a. Sehera). Ga is strong throughout, often setting up Re via slow meend, and Khan’s originals often bring out hints of a ma-murchana. His student Chris Stephens compares it to the near-prakriti Mohankauns: “The main difference is that Mohankauns sometimes sprinkles a komal ga in the mix, and Imratkauns uses shuddha Re more frequently…Imratkauns is most similar to ‘Rageshri komal dha’, and Mohankauns to ‘Malkauns with shuddha Ga’…”. Also performed by Imrat’s son Wajahat on sarod, who similarly casts it as “a combination of Malkauns and Rageshri”.
–Imrat Khan (2011)–
• Raag Jaijaiwanti •
S-R-gG-m-P-D-nN-S
A much-beloved but highly intricate raga, featuring both variants of Ga and Ni. Dhrupadyas hold NSDNR as the essential pakad (with some bemoaning the loss of the “slow glide from Ga to Re…as Jaijaiwanti’s distinguishing feature”) – while modern performers tend to ‘enclose’ the komal ga in the avroh phrase RgR, preferring the shuddha in most other scenarios. Uttarang movements may take after Sorath (mPNS) or Bageshri (mDnS), with the Pa-Re sangati being highlighted via long slides, amidst other features drawn from Chaya and beyond. Described by Debasmita Bhattacharya as offering “strongly ambiguous elements” (she told me that she chose it for a Darbar concert in London, “to see how complex ragas would communicate to a complex audience…I’m happy it was raining, as Jaijaiwanti has some feelings of water in it…”). Popular in filmi, Gurbani, and beyond – and recently adapted into Carnatic music as ‘Dwijavanthi’.
–Bismillah Khan (1968)–
• Raag Jaijaiwanti Nat •
S-R-gG-m-P-D-nN-S
A barely-explored compound of Jaijaiwanti and Shuddha Nat, which blends the basic structure of the latter raga with flourishes from the former. The only renditions I can trace are those of Bhimsen Joshi, who may be the raga’s inventor (although some sources suggest the great Jaipur-Atrauli guru Azizuddin Khan instead) – beginning in the 1970s (e.g. a 1970 baithak, the 1972 Sadarang Conference, and a 1978 American show), and culminating in its release on his 1997 Rarely Heard Ragas album (along with Hindolita and Bageshri Bahar). His performances generally showcase a strong shuddha Ga, with komal ni included in avroh flourishes (e.g. nD(n)P), and komal ga barely featuring at all (when it does, it is limited to andolan motions and the Jaijaiwanti-like g\R ornament). Further research is hindered by a lack of titling clarity for many existing Joshi recordings (e.g. this rendition‘s treatment of double-Ni suggests it may in fact be the nearby Jayant Malhar).
–Bhimsen Joshi (1997)–
• Raag Jait •
S-rR-G-P-D-S
A charming audav raga with several disparate branches. In particular, the treatment of Re varies (some render it komal, and others shuddha, while Jaipur-Atrauli singers employ both forms) – with Dha, which must be taken vakra, also showing up in both its variants (albeit not within the same performance). Indeed, even renditions by the same artist may vary according to the hour: as per Hariprasad Chaurasia, probably the raga’s most prominent modern interpreter, “Jait is the only [raga] which is played in both the morning and evening: in the morning, it is based on Bibhas, and in the evening, it is based on Marwa”. Despite these explicitly-stated similarities, Jait is distinguished from both ragas by a stronger use of Pa over Dha (e.g. S\P; PDGP; PDPS). Also see the overlapping Jait Kalyan.
–Hariprasad Chaurasia (2010)–
• Raag Jait Kalyan •
S-R-G-P-D-S
A Bhupali-prakriti raga which blends Jait with the Kalyan-ang, retaining the former’s strong Pa-Sa sangati amidst descending lines from the latter such as DP(G)RS. Re may be played weakly in aroha, rendering some upward-moving sections of the raga surtar, while glides of (D)G and (P)G are frequent. Seemingly introduced to the ragascape by Jaipur-Atrauli founder Alladiya Khan (also the progenitor of Maru Bihag and Dagori) – and remains rare today, likely due to the challenge of differentiating its swara set from Bhupali and Deshkar. Refer to Manjiri Asanare-Kelkar’s excellent Amodini demo lesson for in-depth coverage of how to differentiate the raga these two prakritis, in which she states that “the peculiar Jait Kalyan phrase is SSG GP(MP)G; [expanded] like this: SSG GP PDPG PG GRS, PP/SS, SS SRS(NS)P PDPG” (also see lec-dem notes from a similarly-themed K.G. Ginde breakdown).
–Mallikarjun Mansur (1968)–
• Raag Jaitashree •
S-r-G-M-P-d-N-S
A sunset raga prominent in the Jaipur-Atrauli gharana, blending Shree with Jait’s komal re incarnation. Some, such as Ulhas Kashalkar, render the aroha ‘triswari’, limiting it to the three swaras of Malashree (SGP), set in Jait Kalyan-style phrases such as SG, GP, PSP – although the avroh is more clustered, often skipping taar Sa at the turnaround (e.g. NrNdP). Deepak Raja also documents “a less formal blend of the two ragas, evident in the renditions of Kishori Amonkar, [where] phrases from Shree are also used occasionally in ascent, and phrasing typical of Puriya Dhanashree is allowed to occur in the mid-octave” (n.b. in Bhatkhande’s era, shuddha Dha seems to have been a feature too). Read more in Raja’s ever-intriguing analysis of the Jaipur-Atrauli ‘achop’ method (“alternating phrases from the component ragas are rendered sequentially, often in a dovetailed manner, to shape the melodic personality of the compound…[which] produces very enigmatic melodic entities most of the time. However, in rare cases, such as Jaitashree, this approach can lead to the unintended entry of alien phrasing…”). Also see Manjiri Asanare-Kelkar’s bandish-based breakdown, and an AUTRIM pitch-graph tracing the tones of a Mashkoor Ali Khan recording.
–Ulhas Kashalkar (2015)–
• Raag Jaiwanti Todi •
S-r-g-m-P-D-n-S
An Ahiri-prakriti raga introduced by Maharaja Jaiwant Singh Waghela (1904-1980): a hereditary King of Sanand who also gained wide renown as a spiritual teacher, vocal educator, and generous patron of the nascent Mewati gharana (also hear his famous Mata Kalika composition). Its twists and turns are linked to the lineages of Todi, Ahir Bhairav, and Jaunpuri, with Parrikar noting that “ga is typically dropped in aroha movements extending beyond ma”. Refer to a rhythmically-charged rendition by Pandit Jasraj, who, in his youth, studied under Jaiwant Singh (also showcasing some superb harmonium support from the great Appa Jalgaonkar), as well as a recent composition by Aarshin Karande (“inspired by a dream Karande had about Jasraj-ji, his grand-guru”). Also see the overlapping Ahiri Todi [and…on the off-chance that any sonically-supportive kings are reading: perhaps you’d like to patronise my raga project?].
–Pandit Jasraj (1982)–
• Raag Jaldhar Kedar •
S-R-m-P-D-S
Jaldhar Kedar applies the movement patterns of Kedar to the swara set of Durga, also drawing on the monsoon melodies of the Malhar family. Shuddha ma is emphasised as a nyas (e.g. SRSm; mRPm; DPm), and the Malharic Re-Pa sangati is also strong, while Durga’s mRP; mRDS is replaced by mRP; mRS; SRSm. Study notes from a K.G. Ginde lecture-demo offer a more detailed comparison with Durga and the similarly prakriti Shuddha Malhar: stating that all three ragas take a ma-Sa vadi-samvadi, but that Jaldhar Kedar is distinguished by features including a D\m glide and a mid-scale (mPDP)m ornament. Refer to Ginde’s rendition (below), as well as those of Ramrang, Jyotsna Bhole, and Balwant Rai Bhatt – and also see other Kedar-allied ragas including Chandni Kedar and Saraswati Kedar.
–K.G. Ginde (1985)–
• Raag Jansammohini •
S-R-G-P-D-n-S
Broadly running along the lines of ‘Kalavati plus shuddha Re’ (especially in avroh), Jansammohini is a captivating Southern import. As per santooriya Tarun Bhattacharya, “This [scale] was originally called ‘Siva Kalyan’, but the raga went out of circulation. Having heard the Carnatic Jansammohini, my guruji Ravi Shankar brought it back [under] the Carnatic name. It symbolises pangs of separation, nostalgia, and implicit faith in God” (hear his rendition). Explored to powerful effect across vocal and instrumental music, the raga’s robust geometries are capable of housing everything from bhajans (Ashwini Bhide-Deshpande’s Ganesh Vandana) and freewheeling sitar solos (Ravi Shankar’s rhythmic take) to epic, full-length santoor duets (Shivkumar & Rahul Sharma’s astonishing Real World rendition: speaking as a santoor player, this is probably the most vivid sound quality I’ve ever heard from the instrument). Still surprisingly rare, Jansammohini seemingly has no prakriti ragas despite its relatively simple structure (‘Khamaj no ma’). Aside from the clear imprints of Kalavati, the raga allows for relatively free exploration – with artists naturally tending to emphasise the wide P-G jump and descending whole-tone run of G-R-S-n (e.g. GRG, RSR, SnS, DPG…). Also see Malay Marutam, another Southern scale which takes a komal re instead.
–Shivkumar Sharma (1996)–
• Raag Japaniya •
S-R-g-P-d-S
The SRgPdS swara set – equivalent to ‘Shivranjani komal dha’ or ‘Bhupali Todi shuddha Re’ – exists in several distinct Hindustani guises. Patiala vocalists title it ‘Lilavati/Leelavati’, however this name is also applied to a separate ‘Kalavati komal ga’ form by others. The same scale also appears under the intriguing title of ‘Japaneeya/Japaniya’: a recent import from Carnatic music with rumoured origins in filmi tunes of the 1980s (the Malayalam Music & Movie Encyclopedia lists four songs under the raga, with the earliest being 1983’s Ganamohana Mridu – although the only one of these I can find a recording for is 2000’s Thulasimaniyaniju). The name is presumably a reference to the scale’s status as a ubiquitous ‘Japan motif’ in international media, used in various rotations to summon an instant essence of traditional Japanese culture in TV, film, and beyond (e.g. The Simpsons; South Park). Indeed, the equivalent tone-collection in Japanese classical music – known as ‘Miyakobushi’ – has no inherent requirement for a fixed ‘root’, making it more like a murchana-set than a single scale (although many pieces feel anchored in Gunkali’s SrmPdS sequence, Japaniya’s ma-murchana: compare to other modes including SGmDNS/Kaushik Dhwani and SGMPNS/Amritvarshini – as far as I can tell, SrmMnS is untouched in raga). Abhirang’s intriguing Japaniya recording gives centre-stage to a fleetingly brief (gRg)P ornament, providing relief amidst the scale’s highly irregular geometries. For more Japan-raga connections, read essays by Aishik Bandyopadhyay and T.M. Hoffman, and listen to Ravi Shankar’s 1978 collaboration with koto master Hozan Yamamoto – and learn more about the lives of cross-cultural explorers such as santooriya Mari Komuro, sarangiya Yuji Nakagawa, vocalist Tilak Bhattacharya, sitarists Amit Roy and Tadao Ishihama, and ‘sitarla’ inventor Hideki Ishima.
–Abhirang (2023)–
• Raag Jaun Bhairav •
S-rR-gG-m-P-d-nN-S
A jod raga fashioned by Agra vocalist Jagannathbuwa Purohit ‘Gunidas’ (also the creator of Jogkauns and Swanandi), combining ideas from two well-known morning ragas – Jaunpuri and Bhairav. Parrikar points to to the “crowded swara-space”, with both komal and shuddha variants of Re, Ga, and Ni on display: meaning that the entire komal ni to shuddha ma range is available in some guise (nNSrRgGm), allowing for great expressive and phrasal flexibility (see the Ram Marathe recording transcribed below). Rare raga explorer Abhijith Shenoy ‘Abhirang’ offers catchphrases including SRmP; rNSdP; dmPG; PgRS; GmrS – also refer to Gunidas’ original composition Aba Meri Suno Tuna (“displaying great skill in navigation, [and] successfully bringing an aesthetic unity to his design…”).
–Ram Marathe (1979)–
• Raag Jaunpuri •
S-R-g-m-P-d-n-S
Jaunpuri is a late morning raga, likely originating in the Sultanate-era music of Jaunpur in Uttar Pradesh (as per Subodh Agrawal: “The rulers of Jaunpur were keen patrons of the arts, and the last one – Sultan Hussain Sharqi – was himself a distinguished musician; it is probable that the Jaunpuri flavor of Asavari was developed by him, or under his patronage”). Rajan Parrikar elaborates on its “Asavariant” status, noting that some (including Omkarnath Thakur) see it as essentially indistinguishable from Shuddha Re Asavari, while others consider Jaunpuri to follow more ‘rounded’ melodic motions, as well as permitting a greater use of ni in aroha – with the liner notes to Kishori Amonkar’s 1967 debut LP stating that “the pakad is mPDmPGRS“. Jaunpuri is audible on a couple of ultra-early Hindustani recordings (Gauhar Jan in 1902 & Abdul Karim Khan in 1905) – and has also been adopted into Carnatic music as ‘Jonpuri’ in recent times. Compare to interlinked forms such as Gandhari, Bahaduri Todi, and Jaun Bhairav.
–Kushal Das (2021)–
• Raag Jayant Malhar •
S-R-gG-m-P-D-nN-S
An enchanting combination of Jaijaiwanti and Miyan ki Malhar, featuring correspondingly complex paths through the double Ga and Ni positions. Moumita Mitra’s explanation notes that some interpretations may alternate between the two parent ragas in a segmented, sequential manner, whereas others prefer to present their phrases in more intermingled fashion (e.g. RGm(G)P mGm\R; (m)R/P (m)gmR(SR)S: a signature which also turns up in some interpretations of Ramdasi Malhar). While few others seem to have published formal analysis of the raga, many have recorded effective renditions: most are by male singers, such as Ramrang, Ulhas Kashalkar, Ram Deshpande, Sanjeev Abhyankar, and Sawani Shende – however Apoorva Gokhale & Pallavi Joshi have also performed a swooping duet, and Mita Nag and Rajeev Taranath have played it on sitar and sarod respectively. Also see other Jaijaiwanti compounds including Jaijaiwanti Nat and Jayant Sarang.
–Ulhas Kashalkar (2018)–
• Raag Jhinjhoti •
S-R-G-m-P-D-n-S
A staple of thumri, tappa, and other light-classical styles, Jhinjhoti is a hearty raga of the late evening and early night hours. Particularly beloved by instrumentalists, its Khamaj-congruent swaras are a firm favourite at Indian weddings and other celebratory gatherings, offering a reassuring familiarity via balancing Durga-like ascending phrases with a special treatment of komal ni and shuddha Ga in descent (e.g. PmGRS; nDP). Sitarist Shujaat Khan describes Jhinjhoti as “incredibly sweet and versatile…different combinations result in myriad moods, from shringar to bhakti”, and the raga is said to have changed the life of an 11-year-old Bhimsen Joshi, who, after overhearing Abdul Karim Khan’s 1926 recording by chance, decided to run away from home and seek out a guru who could teach him khayal singing (eventually entering the tutelage of Sawai Gandharva, Khan’s foremost disciple). Its sampurna swara set – akin to the Western Mixolydian Mode – is prakriti with many ragas, including Khamaj, Khambavati, Gaoti, and Kambhoji (which some describe as a ‘Dhrupad Jhinjhoti’). While most consider the name ‘Jhinjhoti’ as a reference to a fabled lock of the Goddess Devi’s hair, others link it to the Jhunjhunu desert region of Rajasthan.
–Shivkumar Sharma & Hariprasad Chaurasia (1999)–
• Raag Jog •
S-gG-m-P-n-S
A lively late-evening raga, Jog translates as ‘State of Union’ (derived from the Sanskrit concept of ‘yogi’). Its oddly bluesy harmony presents an enchanting almost-familiarity to uninitiated listeners, mixing Major and Minor flavours via a characteristic ‘Gmg zigzag’ phrase in descent (which, via the wonders of convergent evolution, suggests the structure of a 7#9 ‘Hendrix chord: as well as being an exact murchana of Gujiri Todi and Brindabani Sarang). The shuddha Ga vadi serves as the main launchpoint for melodic exploration, with the stable triad of Sa-Ga-Pa used as nyas (although Amir Khan’s renditions also showcase a notable focus on shuddha ma). As per Deepak Raja (Jog: A Versatile Raga), “Jog acquired its significance in the latter half of the last century…and bears a close resemblance to Nattai of the Carnatic tradition”. Also see other ragas which incorporate Jog’s unmistakeable Gmg signature, including Jogkauns, Jogeshwari, Nandkauns, and Amrut Ranjani (which also mirrors it in uttarang as ‘Dnd’) – as well as the Tilang and Dhani, which both share historical overlap with Jog’s early incarnations.
–Rupak Kulkarni (2018)–
• Raag Jogeshwari •
S-gG-m-D-n-S
A low-high combination of Jog and Rageshri invented by Ravi Shankar and first released on a stellar 1980 album (although he was performing it at least 5 years before this: e.g. a 1975 rendition from an all-night concert in Varanasi). Jog’s strong shuddha Ga dominates the poorvang, while motions towards the uttarang revolve around Rageshri’s m-D jump (e.g. GmDm, mDG, mDnS), and avroh movements may place phrases from both ragas in rhythmic parallel (e.g. SnDm, GmgS). Described by Tanarang as “very melodious and straightforward…a meend-pradhan raga [which] can be rendered freely in all three octaves” – although Tanarang’s description of a “rather deep atmosphere” doesn’t match so much with my own ears, which have always heard more of a flittering, folksy lightness in the raga (for further emotional variance, Shankar’s student Tarun Bhattacharya describes it as encapsulating a “melancholic, devotional aspect”). The basic scale (a Pa-murchana of the Jog-allied Tilang) is curious in that its that ‘reverse’ is the same as its ‘negative’ (=SRgPdDS). Also explore other Jog-based fusions including Tanarang’s Jogeshwari Pancham, J.P. Gunidas’ Jogkauns, & Ulhas Bapat’s Amrut Ranjani.
–Ravi Shankar (1980)–
• Raag Jogeshwari Pancham •
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Created by Gwalior educator and vocalist Vishwanath Rao Ringe ‘Tanarang’ by adding touches of avroh Pa to Ravi Shankar’s Jogeshwari (itself a blend of Jog and Rageshri). Jogeshwari’s basic phraseology is retained, while also allowing elaborate extensions into Jog’s territory (the inclusion of komal ga means that all Jog’s swaras are now present). In Tanarang’s own melodic summary: “While descending from Dha to ma, Pa should not be used. Pa is mostly used as [a] kan-swar…like m(P)m or Gm(P)mgS”. Also see other Tanarang creations including Hemshri, Sundarkauns, and Saraswati Kedar.
–Vishwanath Ringe (2000)–
• Raag Jogiya •
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Jogiya (from Sanskrit yogi: ‘State of Union’) is a shadav raga of considerable mystique. Tanarang recounts “a characteristic mood of devotion and detachment…Jogiya has komal re and dha like Bhairav, however they are not oscillated…and shuddha ma is powerful as nyas and vadi”. Generally expandable in madhya and taar saptaks, the raga’s geometries revolve around its two parallel 4-semitone sangatis (r-m & d-S). Ni is omitted in ascent, and often treated as a kan to dha in descent (e.g. S(N)dP), while ma tends to be rendered via meend (e.g. r/m, d\m). Variance persists concerning the role of shuddha Ga: some omit it in aroha or entirely, while others afford it more prominence (e.g. Amjad Ali Khan: P(mGm); (G)rS) – although those who do must clearly differentiate their motions from Bhairav. Some artists also season the scale with touches of komal ni, particularly in light-classical settings. The most famous bandish is probably Hari Ka Bhed Na Paya (e.g. Gangubai Hangal & Bhimsen Joshi). Krishnananda Vyas’ 1842 Sangita Raga-Kalpadruma depicts Jogiya as “Holding a trident, a snake, and a lute, with braids of matted hair falling about her limbs, whitened with ashes; Violent and furious in the heroic vein, she is a yogini, adept in all the lore of yoga”.
–Amjad Ali Khan (2016)–
• Raag Jogkauns •
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Created by Jagannathbuwa Purohit ‘Gunidas’ in the 1940s (also the progenitor of Swanandi and Jaun Bhairav), Jogkauns is usually summarised as ‘Jog plus Chandrakauns’. However, the Agra vocal master’s original inception drew more from the melodies of a ‘raised Ni’ Malkauns offshoot than from Chandrakauns itself, which was then still in its infancy (Parrikar: “Gunidas originally referred to his inspiration as simply ‘Kaunshi’, but a subsequent discussion with B.R. Deodhar lead him to re-baptize it ‘Jogkauns’ given its harmonious blend of Jog with the Kaunsi-ang”). Gharana-blending singer Kumar Gandharva soon picked up on the new form, garnering acclaim across North India from the early 1950s for his spellbinding renditions – with many other artists following in his wake to cement the raga’s status as one of the most popular modern creations. Compare with other Jog derivatives including Nandkauns (which takes komal ni instead) and Jogeshwari Pancham (which ‘flips’ both uttarang swaras to Dha+ni) – as well as Devata Bhairav (the same scale plus komal re).
–Omkar Dadarkar (2018)–
• Raag Jungala •
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The term ‘Jungala’ (or ‘Jangla’) generally indicates a ‘reworked’ variant of a well-known raga rather than a specific set of swaras – for example Yunus Hussain Khan’s ‘Jangla-Gara’ restricts Gara’s melodies to shuddha Ga and Ni only, and Jagdish Prasad’s ‘Jangla-Bhairavi’ adds a prominent double-Ni to Bhairavi’s basic shape. Usually associated with folk-derived forms, several prominent ‘Jungalas’ are linked to Hafiz Ali Khan’s Senia-Bangash sarod lineage, although their titles can be confusing – e.g. his ‘Pilu Jungala’ sounds much more like Darbari or Adana, with a SdnSRg(m) refrain and (m)gmRS resolutions; while his son Amjad’s ‘Pilu Jungla’ does show clear Pilu influences via including shuddha Ni and shades of shuddha Ga. Sarodiya Rahul Bhattacharya notes that “Amjad Ali Khan in the early 1990s plays a fabulously crafted Pilu Jungala, which morphs into Vilayat Khan’s famed Gara composition, then onto Enayet Khan’s wondrous Bihari gat, then a few heritage compositions in pure Pilu which can be traced back to Mohammad Amir Khan. The opening Pilu Jungala is a pedigree composition of Hafiz Ali Khan…”. Ali Akbar Khan also recorded a markedly mishra raga titled ‘Pilu Jangula’ – although his take, punctuated by an unusual chikari tuning of Sa-Ni, has limited phraseological overlap with the Senia-Bangash forms. Also refer to other ‘Janglas’ by Narayanrao Vyas and Bade Ghulam Ali Khan.
–Hafiz Ali Khan (1960s)–
• Raag Kabiri Bhairav •
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Anuraag Dhoundeyal, writing in Swarajya magazine, considers Kabiri Bhairav to express “the angst of mystic experiences” (the ‘Kabir’ of the title refers to the famous 14th-century poet-mystic, highly influential on Sikh scriptures as well as the Hindu Bhakti movement through his radical critiques of organised religion). The raga’s poorvang matches with Bhairav (SrGm), however most melodic activity focuses on its singularly clustered uttarang space, with all tones in the Pa-re ‘half-saptak’ available in some guise (PdDnNSr). Best exemplified by Jaipur-Atrauli artists – refer to Manjiri Asanare-Kelkar’s excellent breakdown below, which explains it as “mainly a combination of two ragas – Bhairav and Jogiya – and a very small phrase of Ahir Bhairav” (watch her demarcate the phrase patterns with dancing hand signals!).
–Mallikarjun Mansur (1968)–
• Raag Kafi •
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Perhaps more like a compendium of interlinked folk tunes than a ‘formally codified’ raga framework, Kafi offers expansive freedoms. Typically appearing in mishra (‘mixed’) form, its free-roaming melodies may borrow from affiliated ragas as well as drawing on a wide range of light-classical styles such as thumri, bhajan, dadra, and ghazal. Lyrical material has long tended towards the romantic, with Faqirullah’s 1666 Rag Darpan noting that “Kafi’s dominant theme is love, together with the passions aroused”. Chosen by Bhatkhande as the titular raga of Kafi thaat (akin to the Western Dorian Mode: a ‘palindromic’ scale beloved in jazz, blues, rock, pop, funk, and beyond) – and prakriti with many ragas, notably including Bageshri, Bhimpalasi, Shahana, and the predominant modern forms of Desi and Dhanashree. Also see the overlapping Sindhura, Barwa, and Zila Kafi.
–Kala Ramnath (2019)–
• Raag Kalashri •
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Introduced by Kirana legend Bhimsen Joshi, via combining Kalavati and Rageshri to span the full seven swaras of Khamaj thaat. Aarshin Karande notes that the raga’s origins lie in Gopalkrishna Bhobe’s 1969 sangeet natak [Marathi musical drama] ‘Dhanya Te Gayani Kala’ (“Bhimsen-ji developed upon the melody, becoming Kalashri…He even named his home in Pune after this extraordinary raga”). Joshi’s renditions draw mostly from Kalavati, setting a strong Pa and recurring GPD movements in an audav aroha – with Rageshri’s imprint mainly evident in the vakra avroh phrase GmRnS (which helps to distinguish it from the nearby Jansammohini). Described by the Komal Rishabh blog as “beautiful and playful, a wonderful concoction of sweet and fragrant notes….Joshi was extremely fond of it, and [his] followers continue to perform it with passion”. You can even watch Joshi teach it to his daughter Shubhada Mulgund in a heartwarming baithak video – while Amjad Ali Khan has also recorded a stellar sarod version.
–Bhimsen Joshi (1971)–
• Raag Kalavati •
S-G-P-D-n-S
A playful pentatonic form, neatly structured as a stack of ‘regularly narrowing’ intervals (4>3>2>1 semitones). The wide, sparse poorvang (SG) and clustered uttarang (PDnS) combine to bring a reassuring momentum, with increasing melodic urgency as you go higher (a ‘triple jump then a sprint’). Most Kalavati performances tend towards energy and rhythmic charge (Rahul Sharma’s santoor take is backed by a powerhouse tabla-pakhawaj duo). Given the lack of prakritis, there is little risk of over-trespass on the territory of other ragas, leaving artists free to roam throughout all three saptak at will (consequently, it is often considered as among the most ‘straightforward’ ragas to learn). Despite the primality of its audav scale, the raga only rose to Hindustani prominence in the last century – with likely origins in the Carnatic Valaji. Also see Kalashri (a blend with Rageshri) and Lilavati (which, in some forms, resembles a ‘komal ga Kalavati’).
–Rahul Sharma (2002)–
• Raag Kalingada •
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Kalingada shares the same seven swaras as Bhairav, but approaches them in distinct fashion – generally preferring a simpler, less ornamented character (as per Rajan Parrikar: “Kalingada has a flippant mien…far less austere than Bhairav. Ga and Pa are advanced to positions of influence, and the swara-lagav is mostly linear, without the andolit treatment prevalent in Bhairav”). Chandrakantha – who summarises it as “a simple sampurna-sampurna raga, performed in a straight manner” – notes that in recent generations, “Kalingada and Bhairav have begun to converge…if this tendency continues, we can expect [them] to merge, and Kalingada to lose its identity”. Prakriti with Gauri, although some artists will incorporate komal ni as a kanswar – and also see the nearby Paraj (and their compound: Paraj Kalingada).
–Kaushiki Chakraborty (2018)–
• Raag Kambhoji •
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Sometimes summarised as ‘Dhrupad Jhinjhoti’, Kambhoji also invites shades of Kalavati via omitting ma in upward motions (Parrikar: GPD; PD; GPDnD; nDS). The raga’s history stretches back to pre-Medieval times: listed as a derivative of Shree in Narada’s 8th-century Sangita Makaranda, and as a spouse of Nat-Narayani in Pundarika Vittala’s 16th-century works (n.b. some speculate that the name ‘Kambhoji’ indicates origins in ancient Cambodian music, although most scholars point towards the Northwestern Kamboja civilisation instead: Iron-Age immigrants from Persia). While the raga’s Southern form remains popular, its Hindustani incarnation is near-exclusively a Dagarvani preserve – refer to renditions by the Senior Brothers, Zia Mohiuddin, Aminuddin, Sayeeduddin (“one of my favourite ragas…a 12-beat composition based on Shiva”), and Zahiruddin & Wasifuddin (“If I’m to be a human being, O Raskhan, I’d like to live in Brij, with the herdsmen of Nand; If I’m to be an animal, I have no hope…”). Also see Khambavati, another Jhinjhoti neighbour which places greater emphasis on ma.
–Wasifuddin Dagar (2009)–
• Raag Kameshwari •
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Dreamed up by Ravi Shankar during a car journey in Chengali in March 1968. As explained by his widow Sukanya: “While riding in the car, he conceived the nucleus of a melodic form that he later developed and called Kameshwari [‘Lordess of Love’]. By using the old murchana and swara bheda system, he discovered three more ragas at [its] heart” (=Parameshwari, Gangeshwari, and Rangeshwari). The SRMP sequence places it in line with the Carnatic-imported Saraswati, as well as resembling ‘Vachaspati no Ga’ or even ‘Gorakh Kalyan tivra Ma’.
–Ravi Shankar (1972)–
• Raag Kamod •
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An intricate raga which draws together elements from many others (Tanarang: “this dynamic melody is rather complex…one can see clear shadows of Malhar [SmRP], Hameer [GmDP], and Kalyan [SRS, SDP], together with glimpses of Kedar [MPDP] and Chayanat [PDPS, SRS]”). Distinguishing sequences include RRP, GmPGmRS, the taar Sa is accentuated with long P/S slides, and Ga is generally omitted in aroha (aside from the vakra phrase GmRS) – while Jairazbhoy notes that “tivra Ma can only be approached from above, and is always followed by a higher note“. Bor discusses the raga’s possible origins as a pre-16th-century blend of Gaud and Hameer, once fabled to have healed the sick, also mentioning that “in several ragmala paintings, Kamod is portrayed as a semi-nude female ascetic with a rosary in her hand”.
–Veena Sahasrabuddhe (1999)–
• Raag Kaunsi Kanada •
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Kaunsi Kanada is often oversimplified as a blend of two ragas: ‘Malkauns (or Pancham Malkauns) on the way up, and Darbari on the way down’. But, as ever, the whole is far more than the sum of these parts, with multiple facets of both ragas interacting to offer labyrinthine moods – described by Senia-Shahjahanpur sarodiya Debasmita Bhattacharya as a sentiment of “heavy introspection, like a man who weeps inside but can never show his tears” (hear her rendition below). Melodic interpretations display considerable variance within the respective bounds of the parent ragas – for example many artists omit Pa in ascent (e.g. Niladri Kumar), while others give it prominence in both directions (e.g. Shivkumar Sharma), amidst a general freedom to ’tilt’ its form towards either of its parents (e.g. whether to conclude with Darbari’s gmRS or Malkauns’ gmgS). Alternate forms exist, notably including a Nayaki-slanted version favoured by some in the Jaipur-Atrauli gharana (see Manjiri Asanare-Kelkar’s demo lesson). It is said that a 14-year old Pandit Jasraj, then a tabla player, vowed not to cut his hair until he had learned to sing – finally doing so after performing Kaunsi Kanada on All India Radio two years later. Also see the interlinked Sampurna Malkauns, as well as Bageshri Kanada, which has largely subsumed an older ‘Bageshri-ang’ form of Kaunsi Kanada.
–Debasmita Bhattacharya (2017)–
• Raag Kaushik Dhwani •
S-G-m-D-N-S
A modern-era descendent of the ancient Bhinna Shadja, essentially indistinguishable from its parent. Ma is a strong vadi, and a S\D glide is common in descending motions – but aside from this, artists are essentially free to roam at will within the scale, with all swaras employable as nyas across all three saptak (Tanarang: “deep and soothing, with large space for elaboration…gamak and meend help in its beautification”). Dhrupad-Carnatic chandraveena player S. Balachander describes the raga as “giving a feeling of Springtime, with leaves rustling and birds chirping” (listen to the wind and cuckoos in the background of his own interpretation). Typically classified as a night raga – and sometimes referred to as ‘Audav Bilawal’.
–Rashid Khan (2012)–
• Raag Kaushiki •
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A mysterious Malkauns-adjacent raga of great historic renown, now seldom heard in its traditional form. Instead, it is known through its influence on Kaunsi Kanada (still called ‘Kaushiki Kanada’ by some: although modern renditions seem to be trending away from the original Kaushiki base). Ragas entitled ‘Kaushika/Kaushiki’ are mentioned in numerous ancient texts, including the 11th-century writings of Abhinavagupta (“Bhinnashadaja, Kaushiki, and Bhinnapanchama are favoured in summer”), Sarngdeva’s 13th-century Sangita Ratnakara (“Bhairava, Kaushika, Hindola, Dipaka, Sri, and Megha are the six primary ragas”), and Krishnananda Vyas’ 1842 Raga Kalpadruma (which describes Vageeshwari as a “consort of Kaushik”). Direct links between Kaushiki’s historic and modern forms are, however, uncertain. Some have suggested that Maihar guru Allauddin Khan may have resurrected the raga – indeed, the only recordings I’ve been able to track down come from his direct lineage: notably including his daughter Annapurna Devi, her disciples Nikhil Banerjee, Basant Kabra, and Amit Bhattacharya, plus her nephew Aashish Khan and Ravi Shankar’s sitar student Rash Behari Datta (many thanks to Jaideep Roy for his assistance here). Devi’s rendition – possibly from her 1950 debut concert in New Delhi – is captivating despite its hazy audio quality, fully justifying the hype around a rising star who was still only in her early twenties. She affords a central role to shuddha ma throughout, and Pa is featured judiciously in descent as d(Pm), m(P), P(dnSn), set amidst swirling ornaments which weave in and out of the familiar Malkauns framework. Kabra’s full-length 2018 recital subtly builds on Devi’s ideas (sthayi: gmPnS n\d, dPmP, Pm\g, RS, gPm), while Aashish Khan’s 2020 album release favours similar motifs (dnS nd, PdPm gRgS: reminiscent of his father Ali Akbar Khan’s Chandranandan gat). Nikhil Banerjee recorded the raga several times, with my pick being a 1977 Kolkata concert held just a few months after he had suffered a cardiac arrest, necessitating a particularly restrained playing style (also compare to Chandrakaushiki, his fusion of Kaushiki and Chandrakauns). S. Balachander’s historical analysis gives characteristic movements of SgmdPmgPmg; mdnPmgRS, also discussing its historical shruti quirks: “The scale has a ‘reduced Pa’, referred to in the scriptures as ‘Madhyam gram Pancham’…and a consonant Re-Pa interval equal to Madhyam, which leads to a ‘reduced Re’ known as ‘Trisruti Rishabh’…” – while Jeff Whittier, a student of Ali Akbar Khan, cautions against excessive overlap with Kaunsi Kanada (“Kaushiki is Malkauns-ang, and Kaunsi Kanada is Kanara-ang…the dnS in Kaushiki is clearly from Malkauns [whereas] the andolans of Kaunsi Kanada are definitely those of the Kanara ragas…”).
–Annapurna Devi (1950)–
• Raag Kedar •
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An early night raga, Kedar is traditionally associated with heat (Tanarang: “there is much thermal energy in this melody…hence it is regarded as a ragini of Deepak”: Tansen’s legendary fire-bringing raga). Often seen as particularly subtle, complex, and hard-to-perform – partly due to its curiously wide aroha jump from Sa to Ma (depending on variant, either a perfect 4th or a full tritone: essentially half the saptak space). Ga is often treated subliminally, and some renditions include touches of komal ni. Also note an intriguing tale from the Dagarvani Dhrupad (“Zia Mohiuddin Dagar related to us a story about Allabande Khan and Zakiruddin Khan. The incident occurred around 1920: the two brothers were giving a recital of Kedar at a conference, and while singing the true form of this ancient raga, they purposely avoided singing its catchphrase. The famous musicologist Pandit V.N. Bhatkhande was seated in the audience – and even after listening to their lengthy alap, he was still unable to identify the raga, and eventually asked the Ustads for its name. Only then did they sing the common Kedar catchphrase MPDPm. At once, the entire audience exclaimed: “Oh, so this is Kedar!”).
–Suchismita Das (2017)–
• Raag Kesari Kalyan •
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Kesari Kalyan is formed by removing Kalyan’s most characteristic swara – tivra Ma – leaving a curious shadav scale (prakriti with Shankara). Legendary Gwalior vocalist and educator Ramashreya Jha ‘Ramrang’ appears to have created the raga: hear his own rendition, and also listen to him discuss it in the context of “two key ideas attending the evolution of raga: chalan bheda and uccharana bheda” [changes in movement path, and changes in swara punctuation]. Abhirang, building on Ramrang’s bandish, interprets it as “a blend of Hansadhwani and Bhupali”, offering wide-jumping descent lines including SNPGR; RGPDPR. Also see Ramrang’s handwritten transcription of his own original composition – as well his other ragas (Bhankari & Anjani Kalyan), and brief bio article (“To think of Ramrang is to think of his fanatical love of learning, the unusual depth and width of his knowledge, his high standards of excellence, his remarkable ingenuity, and above all, the passion and joie de vivre with which he disburses the fruits of his endeavours…For 60 years he has culled melodic objects of lasting value…[making] our world more beautiful and meaningful”).
–Abhijith Shenoy ‘Abhirang’ (2020)–
• Raag Khamaj •
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Among the most popular light-classical ragas, Khamaj’s core form matches the ultra-versatile Mixolydian Mode of Western music. Despite being chosen by Bhatkhande as the titular raga of Khamaj thaat, renditions will usually draw on melodic combinations from outside these main seven swaras. Jairazbhoy discusses the evolution of these ‘mishra’ features as a natural outgrowth of the raga’s “disjunct tetrachords”: the lower of which has a major third (S-G), and the upper a minor third (P-n) – arguing that it is only natural for artists to ‘swap’ this intervallic pattern by adding a komal ga (S-g) and shuddha Ni (P-N), giving SRgGmPDnNS (an effect strengthened by a strong Pa in the tanpura). Described by Tanarang as “light and enthralling, but not sedate…with a husky voice that emits the emotion of painful separation with khatkas…decorated with the diverse thumri styles of Punjab, Lucknow, and Benares” (n.b. while not really in any particular raga, Khamaj is probably the ‘best fit’ for George Harrison’s sitar lines on The Beatles’ Within You Without You: also see an intriguing 2006 sitar, sarangi, & dilruba cover by the Beatles’ Magic Orchestra).
–Ulhas Kashalkar (2011)–
• Raag Khambavati •
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A loose mixture involving Jhinjhoti, Khamaj, and Mand, with different renditions emphasising varied facets of these ragas. The movements of the former tend to predominate: as per Deepak Raja, “normally performed in slow or medium tempo, with low to medium melodic density…an instant identification of Khambavati, as distinct from Jhinjhoti, requires consummate musicianship. This depends largely on the signature phrase Gm\S, executed with a leisurely meend from ma to Sa…Except for [DSRm; DmPDS; mPNS; GmS], all other phrases of Khambavati may be encountered in Jhinjhoti”. Vocalist Moumita Mitra (who in 2024 unveiled her new hybrid ‘Jaij-Khambavati’) notes that “there are common lines with Jaijaiwanti: e.g. Khambavati’s RPDn, RnDP, nPNS and Jaijaiwanti’s RGnPDn, RnDP, nPnS. However, Khambavati’s nyas is more on Ga, and Jaijaiwanti’s is on Re”. Ascending lines often alternate between Dha and ni (SRmPDS; SRmPnS), with some variants employing a double-Ni. Also refer to allied forms such as Champak and Sindhura [and note that the Jaipur-Atrauli raga known by the name ‘Khambavati’ is a distinct entity, essentially identical to Rageshri].
–Kesarbai Kerkar (~1950s)–
• Raag Khat •
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Often described as one of the most complex Hindustani forms, Khat (Sanskrit: ‘six’) is based on the idea of combining six different ragas – although the precise six chosen may vary between performers. Subbha Rao’s Raga Nidhi volumes cites two main forms (“Suha, Kanada, Sarang, Desi, Gandhari, & Sughrai” and “Ramkali, Asavari, Todi, Gujiri, Baradi, & Gandhari”) – while Manjiri Asanare-Kelkar’s detailed Jaipur-Atrauli demo (transcribed in full below) takes an Asavari-inclined set of Jaunpuri, Desi, Darbari, Adana, Sughrai, and Shahana, also noting the existence of Bhairav-ang and Bhairavi-ang variants (the renditions I’ve listened to collectively span all swara positions except tivra Ma). AUTRIM’s analysis of a Mashkoor Ali Khan recording highlights the Kirana’s intricate structure, with both forms of Re, Ga, and Dha in attendence amidst an array of sruti subtleties (“Don’t be egotistical; When the almighty is in charge of the world, why are you so vain and proud?”). Still uncommon on the concert circuit – and seemingly the near-exclusive preserve of vocalists. Also see the related Khat Todi – as well as Patmanjari, (another multi-raga shuffle), and Triveni (which, in some interpretations, is a general term for a ‘confluence of three ragas’).
–Manjiri Asnare-Kelkar (2016)–
• Raag Khat Todi •
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In Parrikar’s summary, Khat Todi is described as an “uncommon [double-Ma] prakar…mostly sung by Jaipur-Atrauli and Agra musicians. In the main body of Todi, a small phrase of Khat is introduced” (i.e. the raga is more like ‘Todi seasoned with Khat’ rather than a more equitable combo). He cites two different Khat strains used by Jaipur-Atrauli vocalists (“Anandrao Limaye uses the gmPdnP cluster, whereas Mallikarjun Mansur co-opts RmRP”). Rao’s Raga Nidhi Vol. 3 (1965) also lists another form of the raga, which avoids tivra Ma throughout – noting that this version can present chayas of Bilaskhani Todi in aroha and Asavari komal re in avroh.
–Shalmalee Joshi (2017)–
• Raag Khem Kalyan •
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A rare-but-charming raga of the Agra gharana, Khem Kalyan is a Kalyan variant with Hansadhwani-like touches. In his essay The Precious Kalyan, Imdadkhani sitarist-scholar Deepak Raja recounts his quest to decode and reconstruct its workings from old recordings, having failed to find a guru who knew it: “This was no ordinary raga…not even just another rare raga. It was a special raga, perhaps beyond reach without a guru…The raga has a quadratonic ascent of stark tonal geometry (SGPNS), with each swara having equal weightage. The descent is hyper-heptatonic (SNDPMmGRS), with tivra Ma being deployed subliminally (as in Shuddha Kalyan), and shuddha Dha deployed subliminally (as in Bihag). The zigzag phrasing [is] essential…”.
–Ashwini Bhide Deshpande (2018)–
• Raag Khokar •
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A captivating raga with disparate modern strands. In its predominant Jaipur-Atrauli incarnation, Khokar is, according to some, essentially identical to Bihagda, itself a fusion of Bihag and Khamaj (Deepak Raja: “A melodic analysis of the so-called Khokar confirms its identity with Bihagda…[any] distinction remains unsupported by either logic or evidence”). On the other hand, Manjiri Asanare-Kelkar’s detailed lecture-demo summarises it as “a variant of Bihagda, [with] the Khamaj element being extended even more” (see full transcription below). Re is limited to avroh flourishes, and, as per Parrikar, “the attack on komal ni is pronounced, and suggestive of Shukla Bilawal” – recommending “the ineffable splendour of Kesarbai Kerkar’s performance: the conception, execution, and resolution of her taans as they take flight, soar, and swoop back into the orbit of the tala make for a awe-inspiring spectacle” (also watch a duet by Kishori Amonkar & her mother Mogubai Kurdikar). Seemingly untouched by instrumentalists.
–Mallikarjun Mansur (~1980s)–
• Raag Kirwani •
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Despite its congruence with the Western Harmonic Minor, Kirwani has origins in the Carnatic Keeravani (likely via Ravi Shankar’s extensive Southern borrowings): thus lending it a natural popularity for North-South jugalbandi duets, offering artists from both cultures a rich expanse of shared melodic territory. Like many Southern imports, Kirwani is comparatively ‘open’, allowing for near-free use of all seven swaras in ascent and descent – although the wide dha-Ni sangati attracts natural prominence, with Ni also serving as the only ‘detached’ swara (i.e. the positions 7 semitones above and below it are both varjit, thus ‘detaching’ the swara from all perfect 5th resolutions). Aarshin Karande considers the Mewati interpretation to contain prominent shades of Kafi, Chandrakauns, Bageshri, and Bhairavi, with many other scales also lying in proximity. While the raga appears to have no extant Northern prakritis, many scholars contend that the same swara set may once have been occupied by an archaic form of Pilu. Also see ragas ‘enclosed’ by Kirwani’s SRgmPdNS scale form, including Chandrakauns (no Re/Pa), Rangeshwari (no Dha), Shobhawari (no Ga/Ni), and Devranjani (no Re/Ga) – as well as Shankar’s other Carnatic experiments, notably including Charukeshi, Vachaspati, Malay Marutam, & Simhendra Madhyamam.
–Nikhil Banerjee (1986)–
• Raag Kokilapriya •
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The Carnatic Kokilapriya scale (mela #11) is still barely known in the North. Its unique shape, resembling ‘Bhairavi-Yaman’, has several curious properties: with an ‘all-komal’ poorvang (Srgm) and ‘all-shuddha’ uttarang (PDNS), it is ‘palindromic’ (=symmetric from Sa) – but 5 of its swaras are ‘imperfect’ (=with no swara 7 semitones above them) and 4 of them are ‘detached’ (=no swaras 7 semitones above or below), in both cases the theoretical maximum for a 7-note scale. Abhirang’s 2025 alap showcases a balanced yet bipolar mood, with each side of the scale presenting contrasting colours, and Sa acting as a natural ‘pivot’ between them. Composer Mahesh Mahadev entitled his own imagining of same scale ‘Bhimsen’ (named for Bhimsen Joshi and Miyan Tansen) specifying the omission of Re and Dha in ascent – so far, Jayateerth Mevundi’s intriguing 2023 rendition is the only recording available (“Giridhar Gopal Shyam: the first ever bandish in Hindi about Lord Venkateshwara…”). Depending on which scale-segment is emphasised, Kokilapriya can hint at many other ragas, including Bhairavi (SrgmP), Bilawal (mPDNS), Patdeep (gmPDNS), and Ahiri (SrgmPD), while also offering a multitude of further interpretations (e.g. borrowed phrasings from other palindromic ragas such as Bhairav, or from audav subsets such as Rajeshwari or Madhuranjani). Compare to the rest of the ‘32 thaat’ (=all possible 7-note sampurna scales), and to other ‘fragmented’ ragas (=where over half the swaras are detached) including its murchana partner Rishabhapriya – and listen to the original Carnatic incarnation via renditions from Sukha Vaazhvu, Abhishek Raghuram, and Palghat Ramprasad. I hope that further Hindustani recordings will follow!
–Abhirang (2025)–
• Raag Komal Ramkali •
S-r-g-M-P-d-n-S
A strange sampurna scale, equivalent in shape to ‘Todi komal Ni’ or ‘Bhairavi tivra Ma’ (or ‘Todi’s poorvang + Bhairavi’s uttarang’). Aside from Sa and Pa, there are no shuddha swaras – but all five vikrit positions are available (rgMdn), opening up a variety of odd dissonances – with the wide-spaced cluster of gMPd requiring particular care. The only renditions I can trace are by scholar-singer Ashok Da Ranade, who emphasises the komal dha amidst long, looping melodies – and Kirana vocalist Moumita Mitra, who in 2023 released a stellar pair of compositions and a superb demo lesson (transcribed in full below). She recounts finding the raga in an old textbook (Nawab Ali Khan’s 1913 Marif-un-Naghmat), and summarises her version as “a blend of Bhupali Todi and Ramkali” (in the words of her listeners: “Ramkali was the defiant daughter of Bhairav…This raga is definitely the stepsister who was a bad influence on Ramkali!”). Abhirang recently recorded the same scale under the title ‘Arpan’, interpreted as ‘Multani with a komal ni’ – also compare to the congruent Carnatic Bhavapriya (mela #44), as well as a trio of strange ragas ‘enclosed’ by Komal Ramkali’s scale: Firozkhani Todi (SrgMdS), Mangal Gujari (SrgMdnS), and Saheli Todi (SrgPdnS). And for a more in-depth look at the scale’s geometric quirks, see my 32 Thaat article – including discussion of how it forms the ‘missing link’ in a chain of common raga scales (‘start with SRGMPDNS, then flatten swaras in order of ascending 5ths from re…’).
–Moumita Mitra (2023)–
• Raag Kukubh Bilawal •
S-R-G-m-P-D-nN-S
A Bilawal variant seasoned with poorvang shades of Jhinjhoti and Jaijaiwanti, which enjoys a notable presence in the Jaipur-Atrauli gharana. Shuddha Re typically takes centre stage, often ornamented from above as (G)R. Distinguishing phrases include SNS(G)R, GRGPmG, mGRGS(G)R, with most other movements falling into the framework of Alhaiya Bilawal (although the Agra interpretation tends to include various additional features: e.g. Gajananbuwa Joshi). Tabla scholar Aneesh Pradhan recommends renditions by B.R. Deodhar, D.V. Paluskar, and Mallikarjun Mansur (“an opportune way to celebrate Holi would be to soak in the many colours of Kukubh Bilawal…”) – and also refer to a fascinating essay by Mansur’s son Rajshekhar, reflecting on his experiences teaching the raga (“over these four days, the raga has been developing in many unpremeditated ways. The phrases come by themselves, without my having to think or deliberate….I’ve been seriously thinking about this strange phenomenon…[but] at such junctures, I revel in only continuing the myriad ways in which the raga is unfolding…”). Also compare to other Jaijaiwanti-infused ragas including Gara, Jayant Malhar, Jaijaiwanti Nat, and Lanka Dahan Sarang.
–Ulhas Kashalkar (1993)–
• Raag Lachari Kanada •
S-R-gG-m-P-nN-S
Despite its unique swara set, Lachari Kanada is rare to the point of extinction: the only two recordings I can track down are both brief cuts by Agra stalwart Latafat Kussain Khan (one is said to have been captured at a baithak in Kolkata, the other is of unknown origin). His rendition reveals Kanada turns in poorvang (e.g. m\gm), but the uttarang is of a radically different character – Dha is avoided throughout, and both Ni variants are used in emphatic swoops towards taar Sa. Shuddha Ga is placed on the sam of the mukhda, and komal ga also appears in Jog-like descending motions of GmgS (a vakra pattern mirrored at the double-Ni position as NSnP: n.b. see Amrut Ranjani for the same idea at Dha). Lachari Kanada’s basic scale form is also an exact ma-murchana of Ambika Sarang – also compare and contrast with other ‘double-Ga Kanada’ ragas including Gunji Kanada, Nagadhwani Kanada, and Enayetkhani Kanada. And you can learn more about Latafat Hussain Khan’s life in a brief bio from Parrikar (“particularly known for his powerful voice, his crisp nomtom alaps, and his effervescent delivery…he took ‘Premdas’ for his colophon, also composing music for a Hindi film or two…”).
–Latafat Hussain Khan (~1960s)–
• Raag Lachari Todi •
S-R-gG-m-P-dD-n-S
As per Parrikar, “there are 3 varieties of Lachari Todi, all of them having very little to do with Todi proper: and there is major divergence among [them]”. Some renditions limit themselves to the swaras SRGmdnS, although Amjad Ali Khan takes a much more expansive approach, spanning SRgGmPdDnS with complex ornamental combinations that mix both variants of Ga and Dha (transcribed below: and incidentally, SRgGmPdDnS is the ‘sum’ of all five Bhupali murchanas). Mallikarjun Mansur’s interpretation, while using the same RnSRG pakad as Amjad, strays closer to the Todi-ang, incorporating the komal re in g\rS conclusion phrases before switching back to shuddha swaras on the way back up. The best recording I’ve yet encountered is Khurja vocalist Wahid Hussain’s classic cut from the 1940s, featuring impassioned swoops towards taar Sa amidst soaring sarangi accompaniment [n.b. Parrikar’s writeup also notes that “the pentatonic scales SRmdnS and SGmdnS, as far as I know, are as yet unnamed”: the former has been recorded as Sarangkauns, and the latter as both Suryakauns & Siddharanjani].
–Amjad Ali Khan (2022)–
• Raag Lagan Gandhar •
S-R-gG-P-D-S
An oddball product of Kumar Gandharva’s limitless imagination, Lagan Gandhar (‘Full Ga Concentration’) is distinguished by taking a ‘triple-Ga’ – with an additional ‘quarter-tone’ sruti lying roughly halfway between the komal and shuddha shades (‘komalaa gandhar’: notated here as ‘g̃’). This strange tone-trio is often navigated in adjacent manner, with slow glides serving to highlight the subtle pitch-differences between each position (e.g. G\g̃\g). While the rest of the swara-set lies close to Shivranjani and Bhupali, it follows its own distinct phraseologies (even mirroring Ga’s mid-sruti interplay around the Ni zone at times, e.g. here). As per Parrikar, “a connoisseur’s delight…the raga was very dear to [Gandharva]…The haunting feeling originates from the uncertainty imparted to Ga”. Few besides its creator and his wife Vasundhara Tai have attempted to tackle the raga in earnest (see renditions by vocalist Milap Rane and bansuriya Ronu Majumdar, plus a bandish breakdown by Swaroop Sardeshmukh). The Hindu’s coverage of Gandharva’s Apr 2023 centenary concert notes that “day two began with Kalapini Komkali’s Lagan Gandhar, a unique raga created by her father, adding a personal dimension to [its] vitality…Kalapini presented two compositions in this challenging raga [Sudha Na Rahi Mohe & Baje Re Mora]”. Also see Gandharva’s other creations, incuding Bihad Bhairav, Bhavmat Bhairav, Rati Bhairav, Saheli Todi, and Madhusurja (inspired by the impending doom of a sacrificial goat) – and compare to the mysterious, barely-recorded Suranjani [which immediately struck me for its uncanny similarities to Lagan Gandhar: apart from matching the same scale, both explore the ‘mid-Ga’ sruti zone to similar effect…]
–Kumar Gandharva (1968)–
• Raag Lakshmi Kalyan •
S-R-G-mM-P-D-N-S
An enchanting but seldom-heard raga, taking the swara set of ‘Kalyan double-Ma’ (n.b. ‘Lakshmi’ refers to the Hindu goddess of power, prosperity, and fortune). Described by slide guitarist Deepak Kshirsagar as “a combination of Shuddha Sarang and Shyam Kalyan, [although] some combine Shuddha Sarang and Kamod..or use [the swaras of] Shyam Kalyan in the Sarang chalan…It is sung in the evening…Shri Vamanrao Bhat conceived the raga in memory of his mother” [n.b. it is unclear who ‘Vamanrao Bhat[t]’ may be: the only semi-plausible name-match I’m able to trace is a 1930s Marathi film director, noted for his “tales of the absurdities of middle class existence”]. Kirana vocalist Arshad Ali Khan, one of only a few to have made a raga by this name a regular part of their repertoire, also includes komal re and ni, allowing for chayas of Vachaspati (nDnPMG) and Puriya Kalyan (NrGrS) – and Maihar surbahar artist Indrajit Banerjee also features both these extra swaras, restricting use of komal re to emphatic descending lines (NSG(M)P, MG, MGrGrS), and mostly avoiding komal ni. Further information is hard to come by: don’t hesitate to send me what you know!
–Deepak Kshirsagar (2019)–
• Raag Lakshmi Todi •
S-rR-gG-m-P-dD-n-S
A complex multi-melodic blend named after the Hindu goddess of power, beauty, prosperity, and good fortune (Lakshmi: ‘she who leads to the goal’) – which imports the movements of several other ragas into a general Todi framework. Abhirang’s breakdown discusses “shades of Jaunpuri (RmPSdP; nSRndP), Dev Gandhar (RnSRGm), Gaud (SRGmGm; mGRGm), Kafi (RmPDnS), Gandhari (RmPdmPg; rgrS), and Asavari komal re (mPdPgrS)”, while his own bewitching rendition follows an unconventional up-down path, with double-Re throughout, double-Ga in aroha only, and double-Dha in avroh only. Also recorded by B.R. Deodhar – and close to Bahaduri Todi.
–Abhijith Shenoy ‘Abhirang’ (2021)–
• Raag Lalit •
S-r-G-mM-d-N-S
Lalit (meaning ‘Lyrical’) is an oddly-shaped sunrise raga, resembling ‘Bhairav with Pa lowered a semitone’. Among the most influential forms in Hindustani history, its distinctive ‘double Ma, no Pa’ structure has a malleable ambiguity, capable of conjuring flavours ranging from ‘sadness and anguish’ to ‘the serene and devotional’ (as per santooriya Tarun Bhattacharya in 2020, “Lalit brings in freshness and new beginnings; one of hope and positivity in today’s time of the global pandemic…”). Melodically, Deepak Raja discusses “two facets [NrGm; MdNS]…Lalit’s distinctive fragrance is released by treating these divisions as discontinuous, and then fusing them together” – with komal dha often taking a higher sruti than usual. The curious, evenly-weighted treatment of the twin Ma swaras (e.g. GmMmG) has led some scholars to see the tivra Ma as functioning more like a ‘komal Pa’ (while controversial, adherents point to precedent in the ancient ‘Dhaivati jati’ base scale described in the Natyashastra, a landmark lakshanagrantha published around 2000 years ago. Compare to other ‘double-Ma, varjit Pa’ ragas, most of which draw from Lalit, including Ahir Lalit, Lalita Sohini, and Meghranjani – as well as Pa-inclusive derivatives such as Lalit Pancham and Lalita Gauri.
–Jyoti Hegde (2014)–
• Raag Lalit Pancham •
S-r-G-mM-P-D-N-S
A title applied to various offshoots of Lalit which add some combination of Pa and shuddha Dha to the basic SrGmMdNS swara set, often removing komal dha in the process. Many such incarnations draw from Shuddha Basant (a raga which features Pa and, depending on variant, either form of Dha: Ulhas Kashalkar notes that some title this interpretation as ‘Basant Pancham’) – and some also feature phrases from Bhankar and beyond. The most prominent renditions come from Jaipur-Atrauli artists such as Kishori Amonkar and Ashwini Bhide-Deshpande – although many from outside the gharana have also added it to their repertoire, including Patiala stalwart Ajoy Chakraborty, Maihar sitarist Nikhil Banerjee, Delhi sarangiya Umrao Bundu Khan, and Sham Chaurasi Dhrupad vocalist Niaz Hussain Shami (also hear Kishori’s violin accompanist Yadnesh Raikar play it solo).
–Kishori Amonkar (2000)–
• Raag Lalita Gauri •
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Spannning a diverse range of ‘Lalit + Gauri’ experiments, the name ‘Lalita Gauri’ essentially refers to the general concept of fusing these two ragas rather than a specific melodic form. The most prominent modern incarnation was created by Jaipur-Atrauli vocalist Kesarbai Kerkar (who often employed it as a concert centrepiece), although differing forms of the raga are also popular in other khayal gharanas – and Clément Gauthier recently sent me an intriguing Dhrupad recording by the Junior Dagar Brothers, set in a traditional bandish which may predate Kerkar’s release. Most renditions take a shuddha Dha, but some use komal dha instead (e.g. Vinayakrao Patwardhan’s Bhairav-tilted take) – while Parrikar notes that in Mallikarjun Mansur’s take, “there can be no straight sapat taans…they zigzag and keep bouncing off Ni [PNNdN; NmdNN]”. Slso see a superb analysis of Kesarbai’s renditions by Wim van der Meer (“The ‘wah’ follows a passage that goes from shuddha Ni to an extremely low komal re…[which] is lower than 50 cents, and as such could be considered a ‘raised tonic’…And the shuddha Ga is ~375 cents…There is no accident, as Kesarbai’s intonation is very precise throughout…It is well-known that ‘great’ artists play more with intonation then younger musicians…”). ‘Lalita Gauri’ is also the name of a famous Benares temple.
–Manjiri Asnare-Kelkar (1997)–
• Raag Lalita Sohini •
S-r-G-mM-D-N-S
A blend of the early-morning Lalit and late-night Sohini, with the melodies of the latter dominating the aural impression, reportedly created by Agra vocalist Yunus Ahmed Khan in the mid-20th century. Raja notes that “while Sohini is a resident of the upper tetrachord, Lalit is a resident of the lower tetrachord. Thus, the resulting melodic entity opens up the entire scale for exploration, and exposes it to dilution with elements of Puriya [and] Marwa” – also discussing the broader definitional challenges posed by sarodiya Bahadur Khan’s more loosely-bounded interpretations (“because of his decision to restrict the Lalit fragrance [mM] to the descending expression, the melodic form [is] dominated by the unified and undifferentiated melodic field of the Marwa parent scale”). Also prakriti with Malti Basant.
–Bahadur Khan (1986)–
• Raag Lanka Dahan Sarang •
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‘Lanka Dahan’ refers to a famous tale from the Ramayana – as per Rajeev Taranath’s preface to a recital of the raga: “Ravana’s demonic horde set fire to Lord Hanuman’s tail; and the Monkey God sent the entire city of Lanka up in flames with it. But Rama’s consort Sita, an avatar of Lakshmi, was also being held captive there. Hanuman became worried about her safety, and in that poignant state of mind, the Monkey Grammarian created a raga called Lanka Dahan [‘the burning of Lanka’] to console himself” (depicted below). The raga’s present-day incarnation is appraised by Tanarang as “a ticklingly dynamic melodic form…manifested by incorporating shuddha Dha and komal ga in the avroh of Brindabani Sarang”, allowing for poorvang shades of Desi (mmPRg SRNS) and Jaijaiwanti (mR gR(SR)S). Renditions continue to vary by performer and gharana, particularly around the treatment of Dha. For greater melodic depth on the raga’s Jaipur-Atrauli edition, refer to Manjiri Asanare-Kelkar’s excellent demo (transcribed below).
–Rajeev Taranath (2009)–
• Raag Lankeshwari •
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An enchanting blend of three night ragas: Bageshri, Rageshri, and Malgunji. Bageshri, evident via a strong ma-Sa sangati and the skipping of Pa in ascent, combines with Rageshri to present a double-Ga – with more extended melodic developments often following in the manner of Malgunji. Seemingly the exclusive preserve of vocalists, although it remains rare on the concert circuit: refer to a crystal-clear rendition by Fareed Hassan, as well as endearingly scratchy takes from Chand Khan and Iqbal Ahmed Khan – and also see prakritis including Neelambari and Rageshri Kanada. Not to be confused with Lankeshri Kanada (although mistitlings are common).
–Chand Khan (~1960s)–
• Raag Latangi •
S-R-G-M-P-d-N-S
A unique sampurna scale borrowed from the 63rd Carnatic mela, which takes the form of ‘Kalyan komal dha’ (or ‘Yaman’s poorvang + Todi’s uttarang’). Subbha Rao’s Raga Nidhi Vol.3, written in the early 1960s, mentions that “Latangi is not found in Hindustani music” (p.90) – and it remains unclear who first imported the scale to the North. Balaram Pathak played it on All India Radio as early as 1963, and fellow sitarist Abdul Halim Jaffer Khan was performing it soon after that – with later adopters including Nikhil Banerjee, Hariprasad Chaurasia, Pravin Godkhindi, and Chand & Suraj Khan. Ocean of Ragas notes that the same SRGMPdNS scale form is also referred to as ‘Dhanashree Kalyan’, adding that: “In switching Rishabhs and Dhaivats, we sacrifice the natural Sa-ma and Sa-Pa consonances present in Yaman (R-P; R-D) and Puriya Dhanashree (r-M; r-d)…Manikbuwa Thakurdas has explained it in his Raga Darshana as a mixture of Kalyan and Asavari-ang Dhanashree” (hear his daughter-in-law Mrinalini Thakurdas perform this interpretation). Compare to Nat Bhairav (shuddha ma instead) and Simhendra Madhyamam (komal ga instead) – and read more about the raga’s original Southern form via SujaMusic (“Latangi sets a compassionate and devotional mood with hints of courageousness; attractive and sensuous, meditative and melancholic, a sweet-and-sour combination”).
–Hariprasad Chaurasia (~1990s)–
• Raag Lilavati •
S-g-P-D-n-S
Confusion persists around which melodic forms are associated with the name ‘Lilavati’, with several incongruous examples in sporadic modern circulation. Abhirang uses the tones of a ‘komal ga Kalavati’ (SgPDnS), taking his composition from a 1969 edition of Sangeet magazine and linking his interpretation to the congruent Carnatic ‘Karani’ – while a scratchy Zia Fariduddin Dagar session uses the more extensive SrGmMPdDNS. And Dilshad Khan’s apparent ‘Leelavati’ recording, which showcases the Patiala master’s extraordinary command of mandra saptak, has swaras SrGmPnS: although I’m near-certain that this is a digital mistitling, as the official YouTube upload for doesn’t quite match the track length listed on the back of the physical CD (…the CD’s ‘Leelavati’ length corresponds to a supposed ‘Mishra Bha[iravi]’ on YouTube, which actually has swaras SRgPdS: chiming with other sources which describe Lilavati as “similar to Shivranjani in one range and Bhupali Todi in another”). ‘Lilavati’ is also the title of a famous 12th-century mathematical treatise by Bhaskara II, who named it after his daughter (“Fawn-eyed child Lilavati, how much 135 multiplied by 12? And tell me, oh beautiful one, how much is that product divided by the same multiplier?”).
–Dilshad Khan (1995)–
• Raag Loom •
S-R-G-m-P-D-N-S
A rare but charming all-shuddha raga, said by some to be an older form of the Bilawal lineage. Most commonly associated with Ali Akbar Khan, who performed several variants over the course of his long career: including the ‘pure’ Loom, as well as Loom Nat and Loom Mand (all SRGmPDNS). During one concert, Khan recounted that “the melodic theme was taught to him by his father in his childhood, as an elementary exercise to enable him to acquire a thorough grip over the shuddha swaras of the saptak”. Since performed by his students Prasenjit Sengupta (sarod) and Warren Senders (singing a Bimal Roy composition: Mohaliyo Mana Mero Ka Karun More Mayi). Historic raga specialist Ramkrishna Das ‘Nadrang’ recently published an in-depth Loom analysis (A Detailed Study of 19-20th Century Raag Loom), drawing on a wide range of sources and compositions. In his words: “Loom is a lilting and catchy folk melody, similar to the kajri of Varanasi…unlike Bilawal, it comprises simple tonal movements”. Das considers Re to be a common choice of vadi, and highlights the use of SRP and sometimes G as nyas – suggesting core phrases such as RGmGR, N(D)NS (see his full paper for further info and assorted bandish notations from the past 150+ years). Also browse other ragas associated with Ali Akbar Khan including Chandranandan, Gaurimanjari, Malayalam, Medhavi, & Suha Todi.
–Ali Akbar Khan (1983)–
• Raag Madhu Multani •
S-r-g-M-P-D-N-S
An aprachalit raga combining Multani’s poorvang with Madhuvanti’s uttarang (also viewable as ‘Multani komal re’ or ‘Madhuvanti shuddha Dha’), which I found during my search for ragas matching the ‘32 thaat’ (=all possible 7-swara sampurna scales). Conceived by prolific rare raga explorer Abhirang in 2020, who banishes Re and Dha in aroha alongside other ideas adapted from the parent ragas (Multani and Madhuvanti are already close phraseological allies). The scale form, which combines an ‘all-vikrit’ poorvang (SrgM) with an ‘all-shuddha’ uttarang (PDNS), contains 4 ‘imperfect’ swaras (=those with no swara a perfect 5th above them) – bringing a scattered, dispersed mood, and limiting options when it comes to clear melodic resolution. Compare to Kokilapriya (the same scale with shuddha ma instead) and Puriya Kalyan (a shuddha Ga swap), as well as other ragas allied to Multani (e.g. Arpan, Vijayanagari) and Madhuvanti (e.g. Shivawanti, Anjani Kalyan, Tanseni Madhuvanti) – plus the congruent Carnatic Suvarnangi (mela #47).
–Abhirang (2020)–
• Raag Madhukant •
S-R-g-M-P-D-n-S
An oddly-shaped and thinly-analysed sampurna raga, taking the shape of ‘Madhuvanti’s poorvang + Kafi’s uttarang’ (or ‘Kafi tivra Ma’). Analysed by Jairazbhoy in 1971: “Ragas in which the Pa has a leading note [MP], while the Sa does not [nS]…Madhukauns and Madhukant are both modern ragas which appear to be evolving rapidly…Madhukant [is] unstable as it also has a tivra Ma and komal ni”. Despite this discussion, I can’t trace a single ‘Madhukant’ recording, and Jairazbhoy doesn’t reveal his listening materials – although the SRgMPDnS scale is prakriti with Hemavati (imported from the 58th Carnatic melakarta), as well as a pair of ultra-rare forms: Mukundapriya (“created by Mukund Vishnu Kalvint…by changing shuddha Ni to komal Ni in Madhuvanti”), and Saraswati Chandra (resurrected by Abhirang from a 1984 edition of Sangeet magazine: “aroha Saraswati, avroh Madhukauns, and a shade of Madhuvanti. Also, the [Re-murchana] gives a subtle hint of Basant Mukhari” [n.b. see the Kirwani set]).
–Abhijith Shenoy ‘Abhirang’ (2020)–
• Raag Madhukauns •
S-g-M-P-n-S
A curious ‘Dhani tivra Ma’ scale introduced by vocalist Amir Khan via a ‘ma-murchana’ of Chandrakauns (listen to his sargam-demo of the process below) – full of inescapable tension, with 3 of the 5 swaras being imperfect, and the disbalancing Ma-ni sangati on stark display. Sometimes considered identical to Khan’s Chandramadhu, created as part of the same rotational process: but, while both take the same swaras, Madhukauns seems to place less emphasis on the tivra Ma, focusing more on the Kauns-bound nSg range instead – as per Ibrahim Ali’s excellent Amirkhani Khayal site, “Ni, salient in Chandrakauns, becomes [Chandramadhu’s] Ma” (i.e. Khan may have seen Chandramadhu as a ‘direct murchana’ of Chandrakauns, and Madhukauns as a more ‘inherently’ Kaunsi raga: also hinted at by their names). Rao’s 1965 Raga Nidhi also notes a second form of ‘Madhukauns’, apparently absent from today’s ragascape (a Madhuvanti-Malkauns jod with swaras SgMDnS), with both scales being enclosed by the rare heptatonic ‘Madhukant’ (SRgMPDnS). To add further confusion, Khan’s raga is different to Madhurkauns, although both were invented around the same time. Also compare to his proximate Amirkhani Kauns (the same scale with shuddha Ga).
–Amir Khan (~1960s)–
• Raag Madhumad Sarang •
S-R-m-P-n-S
Running along the lines of ‘Brindabani Sarang with komal ni only’, Madhumad Sarang is among the principal incarnations of its raganga (‘Madhumad’ derives from the Sanskrit ‘madhyamadi’: the Carnatic equivalent is similarly titled ‘Madhyamavati’). Ma and Pa are strong, and the uttarang summons natural upward momentum via clusters such as PSn, PnS, PnSRm, with crisp melodic articulations set against the scale’s palindromic form (e.g. RmRmP, nPnPm). Best explored at drut laya in madhya and taar saptak, Tanarang considers the raga as “neither deep nor playful” (adding that “the Pa-Re and ni-Pa sangatis are illustrative”). Refer to a stellar khayal performance by Malini Rajurkar, as well as a seldom-heard shehnai rendition by the underappreciated Ali Ahmed Hussain – and contrast with Megh: which uses the same swaras to emphasise the Malhar-ang rather than Sarang (in particular: Madhumad Sarang’s ornament patterns tend to be ‘brisker’ than the extended fluidities of Megh).
–Kaivalya Kumar Gurav (2015)–
• Raag Madhuradhwani •
S-G-m-D-nN-S
As per Parrikar, “Durga Khamaj-thaat is also known as ‘Madhuradhwani’. This is not a popular raga, its base eroded by the popularity of Rageshri…but is part of the Dagar family repertoire”. While some renditions will skip Ni in ascent, traditional Dhrupad presentations will render it shuddha in aroha and komal in avroh – along with a strong role for shuddha Ga, and a Bageshri-style ma-Dha sangati balanced by phrases such as SmG; mDNS; mmGS. The basic scale shape lies close to to Bhinna Shadja and Kaushik Dhwani (which differ in taking only a shuddha Ni).
–Nemai Chand Boral (~1960s)–
• Raag Madhuranjani •
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The name ‘Madhuranjani’ is used in reference to several distinct forms. The best-known incarnation is based on the SgmPNS swara set of ‘Dhani shuddha Ni’ (or ‘Patdeep no Re/Dha’) – as exemplified by vocalists such as Abhirang, Sawani Shende, and Jitendra Abhisheki, who also includes flourishes of shuddha Re in avroh. Some suggest that the raga’s origins lie in the Carnatic Shrotaswini, possibly borrowed North by Abhisheki, while others claim it as a creation of either Ravi Shankar or Imrat Khan – although neither of these artists seems to have recorded any raga by this name or precise swara set (n.b. alternate forms bearing the ‘Madhuranjani’ title are also in circulation, e.g. Shankar’s student Shalil Shankar‘s ‘Madhuvanti + Shivranjani’ blend [SRgMPDS]: with the same jod pairing also linked to another Ravi disciple, Vishwa Mohan Bhatt, under the title ‘Vishwaranjani’). Also refer to a recent rendition by Mewati vocalist Aarshin Karande, dedicated to Abhisheki (“this bandish beautifully captures [his] gift for balancing melody, rhythm, literature, and emotion…this raga lends itself easily to emotional anxiety, intense devotion, and romanticism…The [lyrics] reflect on the all-consuming, ecstatic stupor of playing Holi with Lord Krishna and friends”).
–Sawani Shende (2021)–
• Raag Madhurkauns •
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A fascinating yet sparsely-recorded creation of Kirana vocalist Prabha Atre, matching the swaras of ‘Malkauns double-Ga’ (or ‘Nandkauns no Pa’). The addition of shuddha Ga maintains the original Ga–ni symmetry axis of Malkauns, while also giving more gravity to shuddha ma via upward resolutions of G/m – a feature which forms the basis of most renditions (e.g. Gm, ndm, GGm), sometimes even tempting the feel of a ‘ma-murchana’ (=Hemshri). Komal ga is mostly used in Sa-bound concluding phrases, in which shades of Jogkauns may appear (mGmgS). Intriguingly, I came across an old Atre recording entitled ‘Surya Kauns’, which I’m 99% certain is a ‘proto-Madhurkauns’: the bandish and melodic character are near-identical to a ‘shuddha Ga only’ version of her spellbinding Madhurkauns performance at Darbar 2014, around half a century later (…she may have renamed her rework due to the existence of other, unrelated species of ‘Suryakauns’). Prakriti with Mohankauns, despite their contrasting emotional characters – and not to be confused with Madhukauns, another audav vocal raga created around the same time by Amir Khan.
–Prabha Atre (2014)–
• Raag Madhusurja •
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A Kumar Gandharva creation, inspired by witnessing the plight of a goat as it was led past his house on the way to be sacrificed at a nearby Kali temple. To collate a few common tellings: “When the goat realises, it starts pleading to save its life. The vilambit bandish describes these prayers [‘bachaale mori maata’: ‘oh save me, my mother’]. In drut, the goat realises that its life cannot be saved – and decides that the people carrying it to the altar should enjoy it, crying for the drummer to play loudly to drown out his fears [‘dholiya baja’]…”. Variously described by listeners as “fascinating and distressing”, “modernist poetry in karuna rasa”, and “the sheer essence of crippling pain and helplessness” – while Gandharva himself classified it as a “ragini of Sarang”, focusing his melodies around a ‘bleating’ double-Ma which is often separated from the relief-bringing Pa above. Dha is varjit throughout, as is Ga: despite this swara’s fabled associations with goats (while it’s probably a stretch to say that Ga’s absence represents the goat’s forthcoming removal from this earthly realm, I like the incidental symbolism…). Invented prior to 1966, based on its inclusion in Rao’s Raga Nidhi Vol.4 (“a midday raga [with] chayas of Madhumad Sarang & Bairagi Bhairav”), and first given widespread release on a 1972 album (along with Bhavmat Bhairav) – with Gandharva acolytes including Milap Rane and Sadhana Shiledar also having recorded it since.
–Kumar Gandharva (1972)–
• Raag Madhuvanti •
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A shringara raga of recent origin, Madhuvanti is geared towards evoking a ‘sweet’ flavour (‘Madhu’ means ‘Honey’). Rajan Parrikar cites “shared credits for its development…Vilayat Khan is said to have conceived it [in the] 1940s…and around the same time, Vamanrao Padhye of Kolhapur composed a similar raga and called it ‘Ambika’, after the Goddess [Saraswati]. The tone set resembles ‘Yaman komal ga’, with all swaras except komal ga set to their highest specific variants (SRMPDN), while also lying close to Simhendra Madhyamam (which takes a komal dha instead). Prakriti with the rare Anjani Kalyan (created by Ramrang via rendering Madhuvanti’s aroha sampurna rather than audav), and Multani is a phraseological ally, formed by lowering Re and Dha to their komal forms (as per Deepak Raja’s analysis: “Multani has an identical ascent, but differs in the descent…using [komal] re and dha, often emphatically…Authorities consider tivra Ma to be the vadi”). Compare to Tanseni Madhuvanti (the same scale plus a Malharic nDNS) – as well as the full Nat Bhairav murchana set.
–Pravin Godkhindi (2014)–
• Raag Malashree •
S-G-P-S
Often said to comprise only three swaras (a SGP major triad), Malashree pushes the bounds of raga definition. Arguably, this challenge is its defining purpose, calling on performers to find expressive freedom within an ultra-limited framework. In practice, this often leads artists to push the raga’s own bounds instead, via including tivra Ma and shuddha Ni as grace notes to support Pa and Sa from below – although Ali Akbar Khan’s rendition stays mostly faithful to the basic triangular concept. Counterintuitively, Malashree’s intervallic simplicity makes it harder to play on single-baaj instruments such as the sitar, which permit only wide-spaced jumps and bends between swaras. Allows – or, perhaps, demands – plenty of space for expansive tabla accompaniment (also listen to a fantastic tabla tarang interpretation by Kamalesh Maitra). Compare to Jait Kalyan (which often follows Malashree’s SGPS swara-set in aroha) and Bhavani (the most prominent ‘4-swara raga’) – as well as the mysterious Jaldhar Sarang, listed on p.147 of Rao’s Raga Nidhi Vol.2 as using only the swaras SRnS, with the Re and ni srutis ‘squeezed closer to Sa’ (although I can’t track down any recordings…any experimental performers out there who might want to create one?).
–Ali Akbar Khan (1982)–
• Raag Malavi •
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An enchanting sandhiprakash raga, which has different melodic characteristics depending on the time of day. Jaipur-Atrauli vocalist Manjiri Asanare-Kelkar describes its ‘morning form’ as “a complex raga combining Hindol [SGMDS] and shuddha Dha Bibhas [SrGrS, PGPDPGr, SrGPDP]…you might also find a glimpse of Deshkar [SDSPD, PDSDP]” – whereas she places the ‘evening form’ closer to Shree (“There are several varieties of Poorvi-thaat Malavi: most are based on Shree, but this particular [performance] is based on Puriya Dhanashree [GrS, PMDS, NrS, rNdP, MDNrNDP, GrSNrG, GrS] with some additional phrases [GGPG, PGrS, PGGP; Pdm, mPG, PdPmmPG; NmPG; rNNPGGP]”. Both incarnations are generally considered to be uttarang-focused, although interpretations display considerable variance in other ways: for example refer to morning renditions by Kumar Gandharva and Mallikarjun Mansur, and an evening take by Nivrutti Bua Sarnaik. Not to be confused with the Carnatic raga of the same name.
–Manjiri Asnare-Kelkar (2020)–
• Raag Malay Marutam •
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‘Malay Marutam’ translates as ‘Fragrant Hill-Breeze’. Maihar bansuriya Rupak Kulkarni explained to me in a 2018 interview how the raga “is from Carnatic music, which does not give so much attention to the times of day. We have decided to designate it as a morning raga, mainly due to the nature and essence of its notes” – which resemble ‘Ahir Bhairav no ma’. Seemingly first imported North by sitarist Ravi Shankar, and still considered to have an unstable Hindustani identity: refer to intriguing renditions by Shankar, K.G. Ginde, and Hariprasad Chaurasia (recorded inside Madhya Pradesh’s Khajuraho temple complex) – and sample the raga’s original Southern form via violinist Harikumar Sivan and late saxophone legend Kadri Gopalnath. Also see Jansammohini, another Carnatic import which differs in taking a shuddha Re instead.
–Rupak Kulkarni (2019)–
• Raag Malayalam •
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A barely-documented morning raga created by Ali Akbar Khan sometime around the 1970s – named in honour of his mother (‘Malaya’) and father (‘Alam’: also the name of Khan’s son, born in 1982) [n.b. the Tamil-derived Dravidian language family of the same title is of a separate etymology, derived from ‘mala+alam’: ‘the land near the mountains’]. Prakriti with Charukeshi in its basic form (compare and contrast with Khan’s renditions of this raga), Malayalam also draws from Megh, Asavari, Tilang, and Kukubh Bilawal – with a relatively sparse melodic character predominantly focused on exploring the mid-scale GmPd space. Thus far, I can’t trace any recordings aside from the 1977 album by its creator, and a scratchy but powerful rendition from an Alauddin Khan memorial concert held circa 1986 (as ‘Malayalam Smurti’).
–Ali Akbar Khan (1977)–
• Raag Malgunji •
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Roughly describable as a ‘Khamaj-ang Bageshri with a Rageshri-like shuddha Ga in aroha’, Malgunji is a multicoloured form, beloved by Gwalior vocalists (as well as Maihar sitarist Nikhil Banerjee). Some artists also feature a vivadi of shuddha Ni (often as mDNS, likely indicating the influence of Gara). Tanarang, aiming to evoke a “deep atmosphere”, gives a pakad of SDNSRGm – while Parrikar explains how the strong shuddha Ga and ma are applied in phrases such as GmD, while being balanced by Bageshri-style mgRS descents. Prakriti with Lankeshwari and Neelambari.
–Jayshree Patnekar (2017)–
• Raag Maligoura •
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A sandhiprakash raga which draws from Puriya Kalyan, Gauri, Marwa, and Shree. Depending on rendition, Dha may be komal (Ali Akbar Khan), shuddha (Ramprapanna Bhattacharya), or double (Khadim Hussain Khan) – with considerable cross-gharana variance in characteristic phraseologies. Maihar sarodiya Sayak Barua states that “NDNrNP is the heart of the raga”, and, as per Manjiri Asanare-Kelkar’s superb breakdown, the Jaipur-Atrauli incarnation is “a mix of Gauri, Puriya, and a little bit of Kalyan”. While popular in Kirtan and other Sikh devotional forms, Maligoura is only performed semi-regularly on the classical stage – with the most prominent recording being a 1989 Ali Akbar Khan album (gat transcribed below). Also see Dhavalshree (prakriti with the double-Dha Maligoura).
–Ali Akbar Khan (1989)–
• Raag Malkauns •
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Among the most revered ragas in the Hindustani pantheon, Malkauns (‘He who wears serpents as garlands’) combines structural simplicity with a nuanced mythological ethos. Said to have been composed by the goddess Parvati to soothe Lord Shiva’s murderous rage, in turn inspired by his wife Sati’s fiery death, its ‘all-komal’ swara set is associated with states of ‘severe tranquility’, calling on artists to approach with solemnity and trepidation. Given this austere reputation, no other raga shares the same scale – although Malkauns has given rise to countless new forms over the ages (e.g. Jogkauns, Nandkauns, & Kaunsi Kanada). Also see other ‘generic Sa-Ga-Ma-Dha-Ni’ ragas including Chandrakauns (SgmdNS), Tivrakauns (SgMdnS), Harikauns (SgMDnS), and Hindol (SGMDNS: which, given that Malkauns’ Carnatic congruent is known as ‘Hindolam’, is thought to have arisen via ‘lowering the Sa of Malkauns’: i.e. SGMDNS = ‘SgmdnS with Sa one semitone lower’).
–Shivkumar Sharma (1990s)–
• Raag Malti Basant •
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A rare springtime raga, summarised in Narayanrao Patwardhan’s 1964 Raga Vigyan as a fusion of Puriya, Basant, Sohini, & Hindol (see chalan phrases below) – although Deepak Raja recounts a conversation with Ulhas Kashalkar, who states that “there is no Hindol in it…the raga has shades of Puriya and Sohini as well as Basant…Mainly [sung] in the Agra gharana, it is actually an old version of Basant…[formerly] known as ‘Mandir Basant’…” (hear Kashalkar’s Puriya-tilted take below). Raja adds that “Malti Basant may have evolved as a variant of…Shuddha Basant or Adi Basant”, suggesting a pre-khayal origin, giving a Dha-Ga vadi-samvadi. Also refer to a rendition by Sharafat Hussain (“a free amalgam of Marwa, Puriya and Sohini, [with] a touch of Basant or Lalit”) – as well as the prakriti Lalita Sohini.
–Ulhas Kashalkar (2015)–
• Raag Maluha (Kalyan) •
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Maluha (‘Tearful’) is compound raga which draws on forms including Kamod and Shyam Kalyan. Tivra Ma and komal ni are mostly restricted to ornamental use (e.g. GP(MDPM)P), and the avroh may feature touches of Khem Kalyan and other proximate forms. The liner notes to a 1966 Nikhil Banerjee album describe Maluha Kalyan as “an evening raga composed by [Banerjee’s guru] Ustad Alluaddin Khan…a mixture of Maluha Kedar and Yaman, symbolising the mood of devotion”. Most prominently performed by Banerjee: e.g. a 1975 NCPA concert and a filmed take from the early 1980s, both featuring Anindo Chatterjee on tabla (“one of the rarest ragas performed by the sitar maestro..like a sandstone castle building up tier upon tier, Banerjee builds the edifice of the raga through the jor and jhalla…”). Also interpreted by sarodiya Buddhadev Dasgupta, as well as vocalists Sharafat Hussain Khan and Acharya Jayanta Bose. Not to be confused with the overlapping Maluha Kedar (n.b. Ali Akbar Khan’s supposed rendition is in fact a deviant form of Medhavi, and Amir Khan’s appears to be Hem Kalyan).
–Nikhil Banerjee (~1980s)–
• Raag Manavi •
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A shadav scale resembling ‘Kafi no ma’ (or ‘Shivranjani plus ni’), said to have been adapted from a congruent Carnatic form (Madhyamavarali). Most prominently performed by Patiala star Parveen Sultana: her enchanting 1982 album rendition places a swooping Pa-ga sangati centre-stage (e.g. P\gP; P(g)PgR), often traversing wide interval jumps such as gPgD; nDgPgRS (bandish: Mere Nain Mein Baso & Mora Neendaniya Nasani). Shuddha ma occasionally replaces Pa in ornamental flourishes of (m)gP, although taans tend to highlight its omission in ‘straight line’ fashion (e.g. SRgPdS; nDPgRS). Also evocatively recorded by Kirana violinist Kashi Nath, although further examples are hard to definitively trace. Not to be confused with Malavi – and also compare to other ‘Kafi minus one’ ragas including Narayani (no Ga) and Nayaki Kanada (no Dha). Ripe for further exploration!
–Parveen Sultana (1982)–
• Raag Mand •
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Arising from the festive folk tunes of Rajasthan, Mand (not to be confused with Nand) is a multifaceted raga form, popular in light-classical settings. Generally based around a Bilawal swara set, some artists also add komal ga, komal dha, and tivra Ma among other mishra touches – setting them in heavily-ornamented vakra movements (e.g. NSNRS; SRSND; DPNDPm). Refer to a vocal rendition by Ajoy Chakraborty and an enchanting bansuri-guitar jugalbandi by Ronu Majumdar & Vishwa Mohan Bhatt – as well as Sruthisagar Yamunan’s filmi recommendations, and Carnatic compositions by Kannan Iyengar and Lalgudi Jayaraman – plus the related Gagan Vihang.
–Sultan Khan (1991)–
• Raag Mangal Bhairav •
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A ‘shuddha Dha Bhairav’ offshoot, which thus allows for Durga-like uttarang movements such as mPDS. Ronu Majumdar also touches on Bhupali (e.g. SDS SDPDS: gat transcribed below), placing these passages in contrast to Bhairav’s signature GrS conclusion phrase. Subbha Rao’s Raga Nidhi Vol.3 notes that the raga’s movements are anchored in the pentatonic swara set of SrmPDS (akin to ‘Gunakri shuddha Dha’), with different incarnations employing shuddha Ga and Ni to give a full form equating to ‘Bilawal komal re’ – also noting that the raga may be of recent origin given its absence in Bhatkhande’s works. Also see the prakriti Bhatiyari Bhairav and Dakshinatya Basant, as well as other ‘expanded thaat’ ragas (i.e. all 32 sampurna scales which have exactly 7 specific swaras).
–Ronu Majumdar (2013)–
• Raag Mangal Gujari •
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A strange shadav scale, seemingly adopted from Carnatic music, matching the swara set of ‘Gujiri Todi komal ni’, ‘Tivrakauns add komal re’, or ‘Meladalan minus shuddha ma’. Its structure presents a unique combination of geometric quirks: Sa is ‘detached’ (=Pa and ma are both varjit), and all other swara positions are vikrit (rgdn: komal, M: tivra) – leaving the ultra-rare ‘tivra Ma, no Pa, komal ni’ sangati on stark display. Abhirang’s pair of renditions, currently the only recordings I can trace, feature strident mid-scale ornaments such as (gM)g; M(dM); (gMdM)d and emphatic upward resolutions towards dha (transcribed below: at points, the scale’s assorted instabilities tempt my ears towards a dha-murchana, giving the more stable SRGmPnS). Abhirang states that “I learnt this raga from Ramrang-ji’s book”: with Rajan Parrikar, another of Ramrang’s students, noting that “The chalan echoes Gujiri Todi: dha and ga are very strong, and re commands respect too. There is no nyas on ni, but its presence is easily sensed” (also adding that “[Ramrang] tells me that that Satyasheel Deshpande and Raja Kale have presented pieces in the raga…Mangal Gujari will present some pain and discomfort to the unexposed Hindustani mind…”). Also see Adarangi Todi (an ultra-rare form grounded in the same core swaras) and the ‘unfilled’ thaat #16 (the same sequence plus Pa), as well as the congruent Carnatic Bhavani (n.b. not the same as the Northern ‘chatuswari’ Bhavani).
–Abhijith Shenoy ‘Abhirang’ (2014)–
• Raag Mangal Todi •
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A variant of Todi, seemingly of ancient origin, involving the addition of shuddha ma via phrases such as Smmd and MdndPmmd. Ram Marathe’s rendition, built around energetic mixing of both Ma and Ni positions, is probably the most prominent interpretation – with Shounak Abhisheki’s 2021 lockdown take building superbly on these ideas, setting bewildering melodic turns amidst occasional hints of a dha-murchana (bandish transcribed below: in Abhisheki’s own words, “I’ll try to give you something different…”). Also performed by Devaki Pandit (“In ‘Anande Aiken’, I’ll try and shed light on the more uncommon varieties like Mangal Todi and Lakshmi Todi…digressing from the raga’s core nature is like an artist changing the key features of his subject’s face while creating her portrait…[but] the raga itself guides the vocalist, who is a mere explorer. So, always sing what the raga tells you to…”). Compare to the nearby Mangal Gujari and Khat Todi.
–Shounak Abhisheki (2021)–
• Raag Manj Khamaj •
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A ‘double-Ma, double-Ni’ offshoot of the Khamaj raganga, with origins in the Maihar lineage of Allauddin Khan (as per the liner notes to his grandson Dhyanesh’s rendition: “Originally a folk melody of Uttar Pradesh, which assumed its present shape under Allauddin Khan…rendered in a lighter vein, and full of erotic sentiments”). Famously showcased by his protégé Ravi Shankar at several historic shows: including a 1949 performance for Jawaharlal Nehru, and the 1969 Woodstock Festival, where he deemed it ideal to broaden the horizons of an open-minded crowd numbering several hundred thousand (video here, and audio transcribed below: and, despite Shankar’s own disdain for narcotics, the audio also appears precisely 4m20s into the ‘acid scene’ of the 2009 film Taking Woodstock). Shuddha ma tends to be most prominent, anchoring complex phrase patterns which defy simple summarisation – to my ears, the raga is definitely ‘zonal’ rather than ‘scalar’, with disparate sub-sections separated in time rather than pitch-space. Refer to Ayesha Mukherjee’s brief breakdown (“soothing, romantic, and highly attractive to the common audience… widely used in semi-classical forms such as thumri and dadra”), as well as other Maihar renditions by Hariprasad Chaurasia, Nikhil Banerjee, and Ali Akbar Khan (often best as duets). Also see Khansaab’s hour-plus masterclass for his student Geoffery Lipner).
–Ravi Shankar (1969)–
• Raag Manjari Bihag •
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Produced via a chalan bheda of Bihag, Manjari Bihag also lies close to Pat Bihag, typically differing from both these forms via the exclusion of tivra Ma. Most prominently recorded by Aslam Khan ‘Khusrang’: his 1989 album rendition (bandish: Sohat Kanha & Sughara Banara More Ghar Aaye) gives centre stage to a strong Ni and stable Sa-Pa sangati, with other takes abounding throughout his career. Learn more about Khan’s gharana-blending innovations (“He belongs to the Hapur [tradition] of Shaadi & Murad Khan, and represents the Khurja, Atrauli-Jaipur, Agra, and Delhi gharanas. He has authentically articulated the norms of Manjari Bihag in his sonorous voice…”).
–Aslam Khan (1989)–
• Raag Maru •
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Rare to the point of near-extinction in its own right, the historic Maru is now best known as an ingredient of the highly popular Maru Bihag. In the words of scholar-singer Arun Dravid: “It is not well known, even in the music world, that Maru Bihag is a mixed raga…very few people know that Maru exists. In simplistic terms, if you remove the Pa from Yaman, what remains is Maru. You then combine Maru with Bihag, preserving the flavours of both: without recognising the combination, you cannot do justice to the raga…The Maru element of GMDN, SNDMGR is not recognised or sung by most people” (…he adds that this trend greatly displeased his guru-ji Kishori Amonkar, who proclaimed that “They murdered Maru Bihag; it is not the way it is supposed to be sung!”). Recorded by Dagarvani vocalists Pelva Naik and Uday Bhawalkar (who sometimes permit Pa in a supporting role), as well as by Indore founder Amir Khan (under the name ‘Maru Kalyan’: also hear his nearby ‘Hindol Kalyan’). The same SRGMDNS scale is also known as ‘Raj Kalyan’, independently conceived by Vasantrao Deshpande around the 1970s: some consider this raga to be the ‘inheritor’ of the Maru lineage, with Dravid noting that “today, many use the names interchangeably”. Compare to Hindol (minus Re) and other ragas ‘enclosed’ by Kalyan thaat [n.b. the Sikh form known as ‘Maaru’ has diverged from its roots in the Maru lineage, now featuring double-Ma and -Ni amongst other quirks].
–Pelva Naik (2021)–
• Raag Maru Bihag •
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Despite its A-list status (Deepak Raja’s Ragascape research estimates it as the 13th most-performed raga of the modern era), Maru Bihag is a relatively recent invention, at least in its own right – Parrikar notes that “Manikbua Thakurdas speaks of an older Raag Maru [SRGMDNS] as its progenitor…but the Maru Bihag in currency [today] is widely acknowledged to be a product of Jaipur-Atrauli founder Alladiya Khan’s prodigious imagination” (hear Khan’s original bandish, Rasiya Hu Na Jaun, & also see his Dagori and Jait Kalyan). Marked by the use of double-Ma (of which the tivra is more frequent), the raga’s Bihag heritage (e.g. PNSG) is balanced by Kalyanic phrases (e.g. MG(S)RS; GMDNDM). Dha and Re tend to be varjit in aroha, and Pa is a prominent nyas, with many considering Pa-Sa as the vadi-samvadi. Also learn more about its ancestral interlinks with Maru in a superb lecture from Arun Dravid (“It is not well known, [even] in the music world, that Maru Bihag is a mixed raga…very few people know that Maru exists. In simplistic terms, if you take Yaman and remove Pa, what remains is Maru [see ragmala below]. You then combine Maru with Bihag, preserving the features of both…”).
–Nirali Karthik (2016)–
• Raag Marwa •
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Notable for omitting its own Sa for long stretches, the hexatonic Marwa conjures moods of ‘austere, spiritual renunciation’ – summoning these sentiments with low, slow lines which patiently outline the raga’s highly irregular geometry (three adjacent plus three wide-set swaras: NSr; GMD). Its descent-dominant melodies, which avoid Pa throughout, often tease at resolutions which never fully arrive, with Sa being the only ‘detached’ swara, and special prominence afforded to shuddha Dha (if you omit Sa, and see Dha as the new ‘home tone’ in murchana fashion, the scale resembles the far more stable Bhupali: DNrGMD > SRGPDS) – in Nikhil Banerjee’s words, “Marwa is considered devotional and heroic…Pa is not used, as it expresses joy, and Dha may express disgust”. Chosen by Bhatkhande as the eponymous raga of Marwa thaat (albeit with Pa added) – and prakriti with Puriya and Sohini, although the trio’s movements differ markedly. Strangely, Marwa is an exact murchana of the famous Western ‘Blues Scale’, from tivra Ma (SrGMDNS>SgmMPnS: a.k.a. Shrutivardhini).
–Kushal Das (2007)–
• Raag Medhavi •
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Medhavi is generally cited as an invention of Ali Akbar Khan, who seems to be the sole source of recordings – however the liner notes to his most prominent rendition make no direct mention of this, instead describing it as “a compound melody of recent origin…its features [vary] according to traditional modes”, adding that “the structure of this melody is [based on] Kalyan, Nat, and Bilawal…with occasional augmentation of [Ma] and flattening of [ni]…In playing this raga, Khansahib has avoided superficial beauty, and brought out the emotion of dignity and devotion. Shankar Ghosh’s tabla accompaniment is accordingly very sober and restrained”. Described by various sources as a dedication to the memory of Rabindranath Tagore, the great Bengali poet and polymath (‘Medhavi’ translates as ‘Genius’) – and, while few others seem to have performed it, Kalakar notes that a “13 year old Abhishek Borkar” once played it live. Also see other idiosyncratic ‘double Ma, double Ni’ ragas such as Mangal Todi, Basanti Kanada, and Saraswati Kedar.
–Ali Akbar Khan (1967)–
• Raag Megh •
S-R-m-P-n-S
Among the oldest surviving members of the Malhar family, Megh (‘Cloud’) is said to have saved the life of Miyan Tansen himself. Legend holds that the great composer’s powerful rendition of the fire-bringing Deepak caused the oil lamps in Emperor Akbar’s 16th-century royal palace to ignite and burn uncontrollably – and, soon, all the rivers and streams around the durbar began to boil and spill over their banks. Tansen’s efforts to quench the unending firestorm came to nothing, until, eventually, he came across two sisters – Tana and Riri – who sung Megh with enough force to summon a great storm, finally extinguishing the blaze (n.b. some tellings instead describe ‘an unbearable, unrelenting burning sensation on Tansen’s skin’ as the cause of his post-Deepak quest, and other versions recount that it was his daughter who sung Megh to save him). The raga’s modern incarnation, which shares its five swaras with Madhumad Sarang, often displays a stronger Dhrupad influence than many other members of its raganga, with countless compositions referencing the awe-inspiring power of the monsoon. Compare with other ancient Malhars including Shuddha Malhar, Arun Malhar, and Gaud Malhar – and also see overlapping forms such as Suha and Devshri.
–Rajan & Sajan Mishra (2016)–
• Raag Meghranjani •
S-r-G-mM-N-S
As per Abhirang’s performance notes (on his recording of the Pyaari Pyaari Batiyaan bandish), Meghranjani’s swara set is formed by removing the komal dha from Lalit. This produces an even stranger scale form, with two consecutive generic swaras – Pa & Dha – being omitted (a truly rare feature: as far as I can discern, Adbhut Kalyan and Devranjani are the only other ragas to display it). This has the effect of concentrating focus onto the Sa-ma sangati, with the shuddha ma taking a stronger role than the tivra (Ocean of Ragas suggests core combinations including NrGm; Sm mGrGrS; Sm NSrrS; NmG; mrGrS). Jairazbhoy speculates that its origins lie in a Pa-murchana of Devranjani – although it seems to be a direct borrowing from the Carnatic Megharanjani (Abhirang: “a janya [‘derived’] raga of the 15th Melakarta raga Mayamalavagowla”), dating back to some time before Bhatkhande’s era (…although the earliest mention I can find comes from a 1939 edition of The Indian Listener). Despite the Lalit-style ‘komal Pa’ flavours, most renditions fashion themselves with the Bhairav-ang.
–Abhijith Shenoy ‘Abhirang’ (2021)–
• Raag Meladalan •
S-r-g-mM-d-n-S
A truly mysterious creation I stumbled upon in Subbha Rao’s 1965 Raga Nidhi Vol. 3: “’Meladalan’ and ‘Thatavidhwamasa’ are pseudo-names which Acharya Brahaspati…has given to a raga the identity of which [he] wants to keep unpublished for certain reasons. He points out, however, that it is an ancient raga which he wants to bring into life again”. Both these titles mean ‘Destroying the Foundational Scales’: indicating Brahaspati’s boundary-pushing intentions – the raga’s SrgmMdnS swara set, which contains all five vikrit positions, is perhaps best summarised as ‘Bhairavi komal Pa’ (a ‘disallowed thaat’ in both North and South India due to the presence of ‘mM & no Pa’). Akin to the Western Locrian Mode, the scale is also the ‘missing member’ of the Bilawal murchana set – generally ignored in Hindustani music due to the awkwardness of tivra Ma inevitably functioning more like a ‘komal Pa’ (see below for more rare congruents). Rao, who gives a vadi-samvadi of Sa-ma, notes “andolan on tivra Ma…this raga is appealing when sung in vilambit”, also adding that re is omitted in aroha, and ni in avroh. Frustratingly, I can’t track down any of Brahaspati’s own renditions (his bandish is entitled Nada Sindhu Athaha Hai) – but Ulhas Bapat’s independently-created Parijat (gat transcribed below), which takes the same swaras, is an outstanding demonstration of the scale’s multidirectional possibilities: I’d describe it more as ‘decentered’ than ‘dissonant’, with his santoor’s evenly-weighted timbres allowing for murchana-shades of multiple ragas, notably including Bageshri (from ga) and Khamaj (from dha). Also see Lalit (the main ‘komal Pa’ raga) and Ahir Lalit (the only other ‘mM/no Pa/komal ni’ raga I can identify) – as well as my geometric analysis of the nine ‘unfilled thaat’ scales. Ripe for exploration!
–Ulhas Bapat (2003)–
• Raag Milan Gandhar •
S-gG-P-D-n-S
An enchanting yet ultra-rare raga created by pioneering Punjabi vocalist Salamat Ali Khan, running along the lines of ‘Kalavati with komal ga in avroh’ (often as PDPgS or SngS), bringing shades of Kafi. A 1965 Salamat & Nazakat performance in Kabul (bandish: Piya More Angan Aaye & Tana Dhere Na Dhim), emphatically places the komal ga on dhamar taal’s sam, while otherwise remaining close to Kalavati – while a Salamat & Sharafat rendition adds acrobatic spice via a greater uttarang focus. Classified by its creator as an early night raga – and performed by very few outside his Sham-Chaurasia gharana vocal lineage. Compare to the nearby Jogeshwari Pancham (the same scale plus shuddha ma, albeit with a different treatment of double-Ga) – as well as the prakriti and similarly-phrased Ganga, recently unveiled by santooriya Tarun Bhattacharya (as “a tribute to the holy river”).
–Salamat & Nazakat Ali Khan (1965)–
• Raag Miyan ki Malhar •
S-R-g-m-P-D-nN-S
Derived from the Sanskrit for ‘banishing uncleanliness’, the Malhar family is inextricably linked to the rejuvenating effects of rain. The main raga of this lineage is named ‘Miyan ki Malhar’ for its fabled connections to Miyan Tansen, the great composer of Emperor Akbar’s 16th-century royal court, who is said to have sung it to summon the monsoon to their drought-stricken kingdom. A special vakra treatment of the twin ni swaras is considered essential to generating the charged energies of bursting clouds, focused on a signature uttarang phrase of nDNS. Lyrical compositions, dominated by imagery of clouds, thunder, lightning, and the unrelenting rain, can blend invocation and trepidation in equal measure (Bhat: “while some Malhars are a call from humanity to the air, some [ask] that the world protect the human from the rage of the skies…”). Shares its swaras with Barwa, Bahar, Sindhura, Sughrai, and several other ragas – and also compare to compounds including Jayant Malhar, Miyan ki Sarang, and Tanseni Madhuvanti.
–Budhaditya Mukherjee (2017)–
• Raag Miyan ki Sarang •
S-R-m-P-D-nN-S
A relatively straightforward mixture of Miyan ki Malhar and Brindabani Sarang, which omits Ga throughout in the fashion of the latter raga, while showcasing the former’s nDNS uttarang phrase (Jairazbhoy observes that “Dha is attached to ni, more or less as an ornament”). Refer to assorted vocal renditions by Apoorva Gokhale, K.G. Ginde, Shounak Abhisheki, Basavraj Rajguru, Pandit Jasraj, and Sardarbai Karadgekar (seemingly her only surviving recording) – as well as a rare instrumental take from Ali Akbar Khan. Close to Dhuliya Malhar (as per Ishwarchandra Karkare, “in Miyan ki Sarang, [there is] a little bit [more] in mandra saptak, and you [often] sing RPmR”). Also see other Malhar variants (e.g. Des Malhar & Jayant Malhar) and Sarang compounds (e.g. Samant Sarang & Saraswati Sarang).
–Apoorva Gokhale (2018)–
• Raag Mohankauns •
S-gG-m-d-n-S
As recounted in The Hindu, Mohankauns “was spontaneously created by Ravi Shankar in 1949. On hearing of Mohandas K. Gandhi’s death, Pandit-ji was asked by All India Radio to play a piece dedicated to the Mahatma. On the spot, he created a variation of…Malkauns”. As well as the occasional use of shuddha Re, his new raga adds a shuddha Ga in aroha, bringing special prominence to a ‘Ga-Ni-Dha’ catchphrase: chosen by Shankar to spell out the Mahatma’s surname [here’s the sloppily-distilled motif on own sitar – audible in Shankar’s take below, e.g. at 1:56, 12:57, & 18:58: also see my Alphamelodics: the hidden sounds of words article!]. Also recorded by Zia Mohiuddin Dagar on the rudra veena, as well as by Nazakat & Salamat Ali Khan in a spellbinding vocal duet.
–Ravi Shankar (1981)–
• Raag Monomanjari •
S-r-G-M-P-D-nN-S
A scale with no apparent prakritis unveiled by sitar icon Nikhil Banerjee some time in the 1980s (in his own words: “I’m quite satisfied with one of my Sonodisc LPs, Raag Monomanjari: that’s my favourite so far…”). From Narendra Datar’s 1989 review of this record: “A jod raga…a remarkable combination of Kalavati and Marwa. Kalavati is a very joyful late night melody, whereas Marwa is an early evening melody which portrays pathos. In Monomanjari, one can feel a delicate interweaving of these two contrasting moods…a highly intellectual and emotional appeal”. Also see other Banerjee inventions such as Chandrakaushiki and Madhyam se Bhairavi.
–Nikhil Banerjee (~1970s)–
• Raag Mudriki Kanada •
S-R-g-m-P-D-n-S
Described by Rajan Parrikar as “an uncommon Kanada variety, on which there prevails no consensus”. Basing his analysis of Ramrang’s renditions, he considers the raga to be formed via “introducing a shuddha Dhaivat into the Adana stream…[although] the Agra-Atrauli edition comes in a different flavour, involving a recurring phrase of RmRP” (evident in Sharafat Hussain Khan’s take). Also refer to the Kishori bandish transcribed below, as well as Manjiri Asanare-Kelkar’s melodic breakdown – which describes it as “complex, with continuous movement from one raga to another…there are three main components: Shahana Kanada [SD(nD)nP, nP(mgm)gm, DnP], Nayaki Kanada [mPnP, (PmP)SnS, R(R)n, n(Sn)S, PnP, n(m)P, P(mgm)gm, nP], and Sughrai Kanada [nP, RmRP, (mgm)g RSRS, RSnPnSR (mgm)gm, RSRS]”. Compare and contrast with other Kafi-prakriti Kanada ragas including Shahana, Raisa Kanada, and Hussaini Kanada.
–Kishori Amonkar (1984)–
• Raag Multani •
S-r-g-M-P-d-N-S
Multani is an afternoon raga of angular shape and ancient heritage, which, while matching the seven swaras of Todi thaat, takes unique phrase patterns – with re and dha omitted in ascent and generally rendered durbal throughout. Bhatkhande is said to have considered it the ‘daytime’ counterpart of Basant – while, in Deepak Raja’s personal reflection, its melodic motions are reminiscent of “the oppressive afternoon heat…the virtual wilting of the body and mind under the remorseless tyranny of the North Indian summer”. The name points to presumed origins in the Multan region of Punjab, heralded as a holy site by Hindus, Sufis, and Sikhs alike for many centuries – with the raga itself seemingly having derived from the similarly Sikh-infused Dhanashree (Bor: “Faqirullah, in 1666, mentions two varieties: ‘Multani Todi’ and ‘Multani Dhanashree: the latter is…supposedly a creation of [13th-century Sufi scholar-saint] Bahauddin Zakariya”). Compare to offshoots including Madhuvanti (a phraseological ally which takes shuddha Re and Dha instead) and Madhu Multani (the same sequence with shuddha Dha, blending both ragas: a.k.a. ‘missing thaat scale #6‘).
–Venkatesh Kumar (2010)–
• Raag Nagadhwani Kanada •
S-R-gG-m-P-D-nN-S
A hazily-codified raga of uncertain origin, Nagadhwani Kanada is seldom performed today – although the term ‘Nagadhwani’ (‘Sound of Serpents’) seemingly appears in ancient lakshanagranthas including the 13th-century Sangita Ratnakara (‘Ocean of Music and Dance’). Joydeep Mukherjee’s Mohanveena rendition lies close to Patdeep, placing particular emphasis on shuddha Dha, while Pandit Jasraj’s Kafi-tilted bandish (composed by his father Motiram: transcribed below) focuses more on shuddha ma, also employing both variants of Ga and Ni. Further information welcome!
–Pandit Jasraj (1977)–
• Raag Nand •
S-R-G-mM-P-D-N-S
Associated with Lord Krishna, Nand (also known as ‘Anandi’ or ‘Anandi Kalyan’) rose to prominence around the turn of the 20th century – initially gaining renown through a pair of bandishes by Mehboob Khan ‘Daraspiya’ (Dhundu Bare Saiyan) and Vilayat Hussain Khan ‘Pranpiya’ (Ajahun Na Aye). Aarshin Karande describes the raga as being “regarded for its swelling sweetness and complex structure”, while Tanarang links it to Bihag, Hameer, Kamod, and Gaud Sarang, recommending a differentiation sequence of GmPDNP; DMP; GmDPRS (“soothing and full of karuna…can be expanded in madhya and taar saptak”). Refer to melodic breakdowns from r/ICM and Rajan Parrikar (“a masterful synthesis of melodic calculation and aesthetic imperatives: the contours of Nand do not obtain from simple, linear tonal ribbons”) – as well as Sandeep Bagchee’s pitch-extraction analysis summarised below (“Ramashreya Jha describes it as a ‘lively and pleasing’ raga, though its joy is somewhat tempered by a wistfulness: probably because of the lyrics of various bandishes. Lyrics cannot be ignored as a determinant of mood…”).
–Budhaditya Mukherjee (2019)–
• Raag Nandkauns •
S-gG-m-P-d-n-S
A poorvang-uttarang blend of Jog and Malkauns (despite the name, there are no traces of Nand). Shuddha ma, as the natural meeting point between both ragas, assumes the most prominence (sometimes hinting at a ma-murchana of SRgmPnNS) – along with frequent use of a highly expressive n\P glide. Remains rare on the concert platform, although renditions by Parveen Sultana and Amjad Ali Khan have gained renown – also see performances by UK artists Dharambir Singh and Nina Burmi (singing a Chinmoy Lahiri bandish slanted towards Jogkauns: itself a blend of Jog and an older ‘shuddha Ni Malkauns’ offshoot). Prakriti with the Carnatic-imported Vardhini – and also forms one of Chandranandan’s four foundations (along with Malkauns, Chandrakauns, & Kaunsi Kanada).
–Amjad Ali Khan (1970)–
• Raag Narayani •
S-R-m-P-D-n-S
Adapted from the Carnatic ragam of the same name, Narayani takes the swaras of a ‘komal ni Durga’ (or ‘Khamaj no Ga’). Pa is a nyas, while Dha is rendered deergha (e.g. mPnD, DP), with a general melodic focus on madhya and taar saptaks. Tanarang describes the raga as “soothing”, while Parrikar traces its Northern inception to specific strands of Carnatic composition (“the inspiration…is Tyagaraja’s kritis: Bhajanaseyu Margamunu and Rama Neevekani…the raga name ‘Narayani’ [appears] as early as in the Sangita Makaranda of Narada [7th-9th century]…”). Prakriti with Gorakh Kalyan.
–Prabhudev Sardar (1972)–
• Raag (Shuddha) Nat •
S-R-G-m-P-D-N-S
Described by Parrikar as “singular for its unabashed promiscuity”, Nat is perennially popular as a jod ingredient (see Nat Bihag, Nat Bhairav, Nat Kamod, Chayanat, and Jaijaiwanti Nat). The raga has likely origins in the age before Hindustani and Carnatic music’s bifurcation (while seemingly being unrelated to the Southern ‘Nata’), although renditions of its ‘pure’ form are comparatively rare in the modern era. Performers usually centre their movements on shuddha ma (although Jaipur-Atrauli singers may prefer to accentuate Ga), with Re and Pa used as nyas, and uttarang motions often remaining markedly sparse (PS; SP). Many interpretations include komal ni (e.g. SDnP), and some feature mishra flourishes (below: Ulhas Kashalkar uses ornamental touches of tivra Ma, e.g. P(MDPM)P; P(M)PG). Also used distinctively by Omkarnath Thakur as a canvas for reworking Carnatic compositions – and typically classed as a night raga.
–Ulhas Kashalkar (2015)–
• Raag Nat Bhairav •
S-R-G-m-P-d-N-S
A direct combination of Nat in poorvang and Bhairav in uttarang, Nat Bhairav was sitar icon Ravi Shankar’s first raga creation, released in the pre-Independence music scene of 1945 – inspired by Shankar hearing an allied theme sung in a lecture-demo by legendary musicologist B.R. Deodhar (read the full origin tale below). Flavours of Bhairav tend to dominate Shankar’s renditions (see gat transcribed below), including an ati-komal dha and vakra phrases resolving with GmRS (adapting Bhairav’s GmrS). Expounded mainly in madhya saptak, its shape resembles the Carnatic Sarasangi, as well as the Harmonic Major scale of Western music.
–Arun Kashalkar (2019)–
• Raag Nat Bihag •
S-R-G-mM-P-D-nN-S
A Bihag offshoot developed by the Agra gharana, distinguished by the integration of special phrases such as mnDP; PDNS; PDNDP alongside other flourishes from Shuddha Nat (e.g. SR, RG, Gm, mP). Tivra Ma is either avoided or limited to occasional ornamental status (M/P), with komal ni similarly restricted to use as a madhya-saptak kan in runs such as n\DP. Refer to Rajan Parrikar’s listening recommendations, including Asad Ali Khan’s classic Agra rendition, Ramkrishnabuwa Vaze’s Gwalior rework, Biswajit Roy Chowdhury’s sarod interpretation, and Faiyyaz Hussain Khan’s nomtom alap (Khan’s various takes would later inspire “a famous cheez assigned to Lata Mangeshkar by composer S.D. Burman from the 1951 movie Buzdil” – Jhan Jhan Jhan Jhan Payala Baje – later picked up by others such as Mallikarjun Mansur). Also see other Bihag compounds including Hem Bihag, Chandni Bihag, and Manjari Bihag.
–Waseem Ahmed Khan (2021)–
• Raag Nat Kamod •
S-R-G-m-P-D-nN-S
A Jaipur-Atrauli combination of Shuddha Nat and Kamod, which may also touch on the territory of Chayanat. Described by Deepak Raja as being “sustained by a single bandish – Nevar Baajo – [which] has virtually been synonymous with the raga for over half a century, and is perhaps the sole repository of its ‘raga-ness’ still in circulation”. This composition, typically attributed to Sadarang, “appears to tilt the raga’s melodic personality towards Nat more than Kamod” (although Raja also adds that Manikbuwa Thakurdas, “the only authority to have offered a discussion of [Nat Kamod]…argues that the popular Kamod is not pure, as it has a fragment of Nat embedded in it [GmPGmRS]. As the ‘pure’ Nat went out of circulation, [this phrase] got wrongly associated with Kamod”). While rare in earlier generations, the raga has enjoyed something of a resurgence in recent years, with a variety of effective renditions now available: refer to those of Amant Ali, Pratima Tilak, Kesarbai Kerkar, Laxmibai Jadhav, Shruti Sadolikar, Mallikarjun Mansur (filmed live), Fareed Hassan (singing a tappa), Adnan Khan (on sitar: “a majestic and melodious raga, a blend of deep emotions and intricate patterns…it evokes longing and contemplation”), and Sharafat Hussain Khan (“I am so accustomed to hearing this famous bandish in madhya laya tintal, the brisk pace of this particular recording seemed a bit unusual. However, the tabla accompaniment [from Narayanrao Indorkar] is brilliant…assertive without being overbearing. Khan’s gilt-edged tonal quality and his Agra-styled ‘taiyyari’ are on display here…”).
–Shruti Sadolikar (2020)–
• Raag Nayaki Kanada •
S-R-g-m-P-n-S
A popular Kanada raga said to have been created by Gopal Nayak – the legendary poet-composer of Alauddin Khilji’s 12th-century Delhi durbar, fabled to have catalysed Amir Khusro’s invention of qawwali via Khusro seeking to outdo Nayak’s Sufi syllabic singing (although other origin myths relate the raga to Nayak Bakshu of Raja Man Singh’s 16th-century royal court). Dha is omitted despite a general uttarang focus, with Tanarang (who describes the mood as “dynamic and scintillating, full of enthusiasm and vitality”) offering characteristic movements such as nSRPmgm; SRgmnP; SnPnPmP; gmPmRSRS (n.b. an archaic variant, though prakriti with the main form, runs more like ‘Suha + Sarang’, and other incarnations may feature touches of shuddha Dha). Also see Sughrai.
–Shashwati Mandal (2014)–
• Raag Neelambari •
S-R-gG-m-P-D-n-S
A blend of the allied Kafi and Sindhura, brought into being by revered Gwalior vocalist Omkarnath Thakur some time prior to 1936 (n.b. it bears no discernible connections to the Carnatic raga of the same name). Parrikar points to “two special pathos-imbuing prayogas: the melodic molecule DngR, and the chromatic avroh slide from shuddha to komal ga: RmPDmG\gR” – with the raga’s double-Ga also presenting overlap with prakriti forms such as Malgunji and Lankeshwari. As noted by Sreevalsan Thiyyadi, “Thakur announces that his rendition would be devoid of gamaka loops and slippery taans: an indication of the tender treatment of the raga. It sounds more like a wistful revisit of a romantic relation” – a sentiment mirrored with uncanny accuracy in a later tale from Susheela Mishra: “Many years ago, the audience requested [Thakur] to sing Neelambari. But he begged to be excused – as Neelambari had been a favourite of his late wife Indira Devi [a renowned singer, writer, and activist, as well as Tagore’s niece, who died in childbirth in 1960] – and he felt he would break down if he tried to render it…”.
–Omkarnath Thakur (~1960s)–
• Raag Niranjani Todi •
S-r-g-mM-P-D-nN-S
A seldom-heard invention of Kishori Amonkar, combining elements from Bairagi, Ahir Bhairav, and Bhinna Shadja. Despite these lofty origins, I can’t track down a single rendition by its creator – although her disciple Raghunandan Panshikar has recorded it several times, focusing his interpretation on a Jaiwanti Todi-like uttarang, and limiting shuddha Ni to specific ascending phrases (also conjuring chayas of Jogiya via Srm; mrS and Parameshwari via SnD; DnS(g)rm). The treasure-trove RICMP channel offers an up/down path of Srgr, SrmPD, DnD, GmDNDS; SnDP, DmP, mrmP, mrS, rgrS – although further information is hard to come by, with the detail of Amonkar’s sonic intentions remaining shrouded in mystery until an original recording may surface. Also see the nearby Ahiri Todi.
–Raghunandan Panshikar (2010)–
• Raag Noor Sarang •
S-R-mM-P-D-N-S
A rare raga of the Sarang family, around which there exists limited melodic consensus. As per Abhirang’s account, “when we only use tivra Ma in Shuddha Sarang, it is converted to Noor Sarang…in avroh, the Dha is kept ‘free’ [e.g. ornamented D(NP)]” – also noting its proximity to Jaymini Sarang (both Ni). Dhrupad interpretations tend to deviate from this swara set: Bahauddin Dagar, who describes it as “peculiarly a Dagar gharana raga”, includes both forms of Ma and Ni (sometimes adjacently via meend), thus matching the core form of Ambika Sarang), as well as flourishes of komal ga (also refer to a vital rendition by his father Zia). And, while some debate persists, the superb ‘Loor Sarang’ recordings of Kishori Amonkar seem highly likely to be the same raga (Roshan Sahab: “There is no certainty about correct nomenclature…’Noor’ means ‘light’, [whereas] ‘Loor’ has no meaning…When [her mother Mogubai Kerkar] taught her this raga, she [called it] ‘Loor Sarang’, but when Kishori started performing it, she pondered over the name…and thought that, because of old age, [her mother] might have mispronounced it…In concerts, Tai [announced] it as ‘Noor Sarang’…but what is in a name?”). Also see other Sarang compounds including Saraswati Sarang, Miyan ki Sarang, and Lanka Dahan Sarang.
–Bahauddin Dagar (2020)–
• Raag Pahadi •
S-R-G-P-D-S
Thought to derive from Kashmiri or Bengali folk tunes, Pahadi (meaning ‘mountain’ or ‘of the hills’) combines playful and subtle shades. While its Bhupali-congruent core form offers a certain sparse simplicity, the raga’s true magic is found in its extensive mishra capabilities, with the tasteful use of any swara being permitted – particularly in long avroh lines which often borrow liberally from nearby forms (evident in Ramrang’s chalan below, as well as the Darbar dhun by Shivkumar Sharma: who grew up in the Himalayan foothills of Jammu). Popular in filmi and fusion. ‘Raag Pahadi’ is also the title of a renowned 2016 novel by Namita Gokhale (who, like the work’s translator, grew up in the mountains – in their words, “the writer sings the melody that is then echoed back by the translator; just as the Kumaoni song Bedu Pako, sung by people in the hills, echoes in the mountains…”).
–Shivkumar Sharma (2019)–
• Raag Palas •
S-R-g-m-P-n-S
Now close to extinction in its own right, Palas (a.k.a. ‘Palasi/Palashri’) is best known for its historic confluence with Bheem – a union which produced Bhimpalasi. Subbha Rao’s Raga Nidhi Vol.3, published in 1965, states that (p.211): “These days Palas and Bhimpalasi are considered to be one and the same raga, but the aroha and avroh of Palas will indicate that it is independent…A pleasing raga with an independent swarup, which deserves to be popularised”. If interpreted along the lines of ‘Bhimpalasi no Dha’, the raga ascends with nSgmPnS, only adding shuddha Re in descent (placing it very close to the older form of Dhani, another historic Dhanashree raga) – although some may prefer to retain Re in both directions. Moumita Mitra’s analysis points to the existence of a ‘double-Ni’ Palas listed in the works of Bhatkhande, adding that both forms take a Pa-Sa vadi-samvadi, with nyas on Sa, Pa, and occasionally ga. Further renditions are hard to come by: refer to those by vocalists Abhirang (bandish transcribed below) and B.R. Deodhar (featuring flashes of komal dha in the sarangi accompaniment). Prakriti, in its single-ni form, with Nayaki Kanada, Suha Kanada, and Gaudgiri Malhar – and the underlying ‘Minor Hexatonic’ scale form also turns up in folk music from around the world (e.g. Mali, Ireland, Mexico, America). The name ‘Palas’ is likely related to the palash flower (a.k.a. ‘flame of the forest’), a deciduous tree species mentioned in Rigvedic and Yajurvedic rituals.
–Abhirang (2020)–
• Raag Pancham •
S-r-G-mM-P-D-N-S
An ancient raga of great historical renown, which is nevertheless rare in the modern era. Ramrang cites it as a descendent of the long-extinct Bhukosh (also an antecedent of Bhinna Shadja), with others linking it to the prakriti Bhankar and Bhatiyar (distinguished via sequences such as GMGrS; mmmGP; MDMmG). Most interpretations approximate the swaras of ‘Marwa double Ma’, although available recordings show little consensus beyond this (refer to those of Arun Kashalhar, Mashkoor Ali Khan, Pourmina Dhumale, and Acharya Jayanta Bose). Despite its name, many renditions lack the Pa swara altogether [n.b. the meaning of ‘Pancham’ in raga names can be ambiguous, and may not indicate the presence of the Pancham raga itself: e.g. ‘Pancham Malkauns’ indicates the addition of Pa, and ‘Pancham se Gara’ refers to the scale’s Pa-murchana production]. Frequently depicted in classical ragmala paintings (as per the accompanying notes to a Kangra series: “Pancham, son of Bhairav, is personified as a young prince seated on a chowki, fondling a family of deer…The leaves and lotus flowers in the lake are in wild disarray, as if intoxicated with the raga’s rich, delicate melody”).
–Pournima Dhumale (2020)–
• Raag Pancham Malkauns •
S-g-m-P-d-n-S
A loose collection of melodic strands which fall under the general banner of ‘Malkauns with Pa in avroh’ (thus sharing conceptual overlap with Kaunsi Kanada and Sampurna Malkauns). Ascents typically stay true to the pentatonic structure of Malkauns, and the Pa is usually rendered in vakra avroh lines (e.g. ndmgmdP or gmdndmP). Beloved by vocalists (notably including Amir Khan), and also performed in the Dagarvani rudra veena lineage under its older title of ‘Pancham Kosh’ (Dagar musicians reportedly connect the raga to the South Indian Hindolavasantham) – as well as being used as a ‘proximate contrast’ with Malkauns itself as part of riyaz exercises.
–Dinkar Panshikar (2020)–
• Raag Pancham se Gara •
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A rotation of Gara (literally: ‘Gara from Pa’) – i.e. if you treat the raga’s Pa as the ‘new Sa’, Gara’s scale is produced (SRGmMPDNS > SRgGmPDNS: although the raga’s creation in fact came via the reverse translation). Most closely associated with murchana master Ravi Shankar, who reworks Gara’s DnSNS uttarang catchphrase into GmPMP (see Deepak Raja’s discussion of the relevant tonal geometries: “If the scale-base is shifted to Pa=1, we get: Ga=0.8333, ma=0.8888, and Ma=0.9375…”). Shankar, who began performing the raga some time around the early 1950s, returned to it throughout his career: choosing its energetic melodies to engage the open-minded crowd at the 1967 Monterey Pop Festival (with Jimi Hendrix in the audience), and featuring it in his final concert (over 60 years on from his first showcase…). In recent years, the raga has reached global ears as a staple of his daughter Anoushka’s touring repertoire (her 2011 Neuroscience Institute performance is one of the highest-viewed raga videos on YouTube, amassing 14m and counting) – with a handful of others also having recorded it, including Maihar stablemate Nikhil Banerjee, Imdadkhani sitarist Shahid Parvez Khan, and violinist D.K. Datar. Also see Pancham se Pilu, produced via a similar rotational process (as well as my full Murchanas article) – plus other Ravi-authored raga forms such as the rotational quartet of Parameshwari, Gangeshwari, Kameshwari, & Rangeshwari, as well as Jogeshwari, Mohankauns, Bairagi, Bairagi Todi, & Ahir Lalit.
–Ravi Shankar (1967)–
• Raag Pancham se Pilu •
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A murchana rotation of Pilu (literally: ‘Pilu from Pa’) – i.e. if you treat this raga’s Pa as the ‘new Sa’, Pilu is produced (albeit in its somewhat less common ‘komal dha-less’ form). Pilu’s doubled gG-nN swaras, separated by a perfect 5th, are thus spun into nN-mM (i.e. the murchana’s principal effect is to trade out Pilu’s gG for mM). This paves the way for shades of Yaman, Vachaspati, Khamaj, Nat Bihag, and other allied ragas, assisted by Pilu’s existing phrasal flexibility. Devised by sitarist Vilayat Khan (alap transcribed below), but performed by few others since. Also see his other innovations, including Madhuvanti, Sanjh Saravali, and Enayetkhani Kanada).
–Vilayat Khan (1958)–
• Raag Paraj •
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A playful sonic form which matches the swara set of Poorvi, with movements roughly akin to a ‘double-Ma Kalingada’ (also see their combination: Paraj Kalingada). Described by Parrikar as “an uttarang-pradhan raga with tonal activity clustered around taar Sa…elongation of Ni in SNdSN is a Paraj signpost, and dha is rendered durbal throughout”, with re often being skipped in aroha amidst characteristic phrases such as SNdP; PdPdMP; GMdSN. And, while Parrikar characterises the PdNS uttarang’s resemblance to Basant as “superficial”, some Paraj interpretations do encroach much further into Basant’s territory – for example the classic Paraj composition Manmohan Brij ko Rasiya (Ulhas Kashalkar rendition transcribed below) is remarkably similar to a prominent Basant bandish: dNS(rNS), S(NS…N)d (dP)P vs. PdS(rSNS), (S)N\d, P(dPM)P. Aneesh Pradhan recommends the original compositions of Agra pioneer Vilayat Hussain Khan (“a scholar-musician…who uses the lyrics to play with the rhythmic cycle [‘bol bant’]…”).
–Ulhas Kashalkar (2011)–
• Raag Paraj Kalingada •
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A seldom-performed jod raga matching the swaras of Poorvi, summarised by Aneesh Pradhan as “a combination of the [springtime] Paraj and Kalingada, [which is] popularly used in the thumri-dadra genres”. Paraj and Kalingada, already being closely-related forms, give rise to a subtle, samay-mixing blend – further seasoned by their respective proximities to Basant and Bhairav. Pradhan recommends the rendition of Vilayat Hussain Khan ‘Pranpiya’ (“the Agra ‘bol-bant’ [a method of lyrical expansion based on rhythmic sequences] is very much on showcase’…”). Also refer to recordings by Ram Marathe and Ulhas Kashalkar – and see the prakriti Prabhat Bhairav.
–Narayanrao Bodas (2017)–
• Raag Parameshwari •
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A mellifluous modern form created by Ravi Shankar in 1968, via a murchana rotation of Kameshwari (itself the product of backseat travel boredom in Bengal). While somewhat resembling a ‘komal re Bageshri’, Parameshwari’s hexagonal structure is ripe for open-ended experiments, summoning its own colours and tensions – and, despite its young history, has already garnered significant popularity across younger-generation artists of multiple gharanas. Shankar’s early North American performances, fuelled by visions of Cyclone Bhola’s ongoing devestation in Bengal, are known to have exerted significance influence on cultural icons including his sitar student George Harrison (even helping to catalyse his famous ‘Concert for Bangladesh’: full tale below). Also see the prakriti yet near-extinct Deen Todi, as well as Ahiri (the same scale plus Pa), and the nearby Prabhateshwari (which often presents chayas of the same scale).
–Ravi Shankar (1971)–
• Raag Pat Bihag •
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A chalan bheda of Bihag, which varies according to gharana. Tivra Ma is generally restricted to ornamental use, while Jaipur-Atrauli singers may showcase a range of additional melodic quirks. In Parrikar’s summary, “most of its mannerisms are Bihag-like, the notable departure being its ‘glowing’ shuddha ma: deergha and mukta” – also see his rundown of renditions, including those of Ulhas Kashalkar, Vasantrao Deshpande (singing a Jitendra Abhisheki bandish) and K.G. Ginde (“a superb composition of the great Pandit Vishnu Narayan Bhatkhande. His mudra [colophon] ‘Chatura’ is embedded in the antara…”). Also refer to a 1999 Ashok da Ranade take and a 1984 Kishori Amonkar recording (Dhan Dhan Mangal Gavo: “Pat Bihag is a fusion of many melodies, and there is no unanimity about its vadi and samvadi. The version heard here makes use of [double Ga & Ni]…the unfolding, rendered in madhya tintal, is touching…”).
–Yunus Hussain Khan (1998)–
• Raag Patdeep •
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Derived from the Dhanashree family, Patdeep somewhat resembles a ‘shuddha Ni Bhimpalasi’ (akin to the Western Melodic Minor), with both ragas ascending pentatonically before revealing Re and Dha in descent. Its unique scale structure, which features a distinctive run of four adjacent whole-tone jumps (g>m>P>D>N), brings natural prominence to komal ga and shuddha Ni as the only ‘detached’ swaras (the strength of the g-N axis hints at historical overlap with Pilu: past forms of Patdeep are said to have used both Ga and Ni). Pa must resonate with greater strength than shuddha ma, and mandra Ni is often used as a launchpoint for wide-roving upward motions. Mewati vocalist Aarshin Karande summarises it as “an uttarang-pradhan raga with a hauntingly intense Nishad, [suited] to compositions focused on themes of anxiety, relief, and mystery”. Also see proximate ragas including Patdeepaki, Hanskinkini, Madhuvanti, & Rangeshwari – as well as its murchana companions Charukeshi, Vachaspati, Ahiri, & Faridi Todi.
–Harjinderpal Matharu (2013)–
• Raag Patdeepaki •
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A Kafi-ang double-Ga, double-Ni raga which grafts the komal variants of these swaras onto a Patdeep-prakriti foundation, allowing for shades of proximate forms such as Barwa (mgRnD), Desi (RgSRnS), and Maluha Kalyan. Ashwini Bhide-Deshpande’s recital preface (transcribed below) describes it as “a cousin of Patdeep…it will give you shades of several ragas which are characteristic of this particular [afternoon] time: but I request that you do not try and find these shades”. Also performed by Kirana maestro Bhimsen Joshi and Agra exponent Sharafat Hussain Khan, as well as Aman Ali Khan of the Bhendibazar gharana (Ho Mora Re Pritam Sai: one of his only two surviving recordings). Deepak Raja, who gives a shuddha Ga vadi and a pakad of PmPG; SRS, notes that “according to Purnima Sen, Sharafat’s student, Patdeepaki is a combination of five ragas, with [Bilawal-ang] Deepak being the main component…[plus] Hameer, Bangal, Savani, and Chaya (also see Patmanjari). Compare to various congruents including Jaijaiwanti, Hanskinkini, and Ramdasi Malhar.
–Ashwini Bhide-Deshpande (2020)–
• Raag Patmanjari •
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Said by some to be more of a ‘performance concept’ than a single raga, ‘Patmanjari’ translates as ‘Bouquet of Five Ragas’. Debate persists over whether the form should be interpreted as an open challenge to blend five ragas of an artist’s own choosing, or whether it entails five specific ragas – and, if so, which they should be. Some renditions span the full set of 12 specific swaras, while others confine themselves to disparate ranges of subsets: e.g. Vasantrao Deshpande seems to have seen it as a mix of Nand, Kedar, Shankara, Rageshri, & Maru Bihag – whereas Subbha Rao’s 1966 Raga Nidhi volumes cite three variants (“Bilawal thaat, Kafi thaat, and a mixed type [with] Bhimpalasi, Gaud, Shankara, Malkauns, & Bilawal…it is a complicated one”). Listed in ancient texts as a ragini of either Deepak or Bhairav, and frequently depicted in classical ragmala paintings (”Patmanjari is upset by the absence of her beloved, sitting with clasped hands, urging a parrot to come to her…clothed in colourful lilac, orange, blues, yellows, greens, ornate gold…”). It also shares conceptual overlap with oddball entities such as Panchavati (Pannalal Ghosh’s cocktail of “five evening ragas starting with the letter B”: Barwa, Bahar, Basant, Bihag, & Bageshri) and Panch Kalyan (resurrected by Abhirang from a 1950 edition of Sangeet magazine: “created by Tansen…an amalgam of Yaman, Hameer, Hem Kalyan, Shuddha Kalyan, & Shyam Kalyan). Also see Khat (Sanskrit for ‘six’), as well as the general concept of ragamalika (‘multi-raga shuffle’).
–Omkarnath Thakur (~1960s)–
• Raag Pilu •
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Perhaps the most emblematic thumri raga, Pilu’s highly permissive melodic framework functions more like an alliance of amorous folk tunes than a ‘rigorously codified’ form (Bhatkhande recounts that some artists of his early 20th-century era resisted Pilu’s classification as a raga altogether). While relatively rare as a ‘main’ khayal feature, it enjoys wild popularity across a swathe of semi-classical styles, invoking both variants of Ga, Dha, & Ni to animate love tales and Krishna bhajans with a heart-on-sleeve romanticism (Chandrakantha: “The list of film songs in Pilu has become unmanageably long, so we have divided it into multiple pages…”). Despite the raga’s broad melodic flexiblilties, komal ga and shuddha Ni tend to be prominent as nyas – set amidst expressive meend and expansive phrases such as PNSg, gRSN, NS. Compare to the overlapping Gara, Jungala, Hanskinkini, and Pancham se Pilu (‘Pilu from Pa’, i.e. a murchana rotation) – as well as the Carnatic Kapi.
–Shahid Parvez (2018)–
• Raag Poorvi •
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Poorvi is a long-lived sunset raga from East India, which some describe as evoking a ‘serious mood of mystical contemplation’. Mixing narrow and wide intervals (all swaras have at least one immediate neighbour), its complex twists and turns belie the base scale’s neat, palindromic nature – with Sa and Pa sometimes being omitted or rendered durbal in ascent in order to ‘obscure’ these geometric balances, set amidst Ma-mixing phrase patterns such as rmG, GMPd, PMGmrG. Generally considered to have evolved from an archaic form of Bhairav (the same scale minus tivra Ma), the raga’s modern incarnation is proximate to Puriya Dhanashree (which omits shuddha ma) – and prakriti with Paraj, Prabhat Bhairav, and Lalit Pancham’s komal dha incarnation. Also see overlapping ragas including Reva, Purba, and Baradi.
–Jyoti Hegde (2014)–
• Raag Prabhakali •
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An Ali Akbar Khan invention, prakriti with the better-known Basant Mukhari. Information is scant – but, as per the liner notes to the raga’s 1964 LP release, “Prabhakali permits only five notes in aroha, dropping [Ga & Ni]. For avroh, it admits all the seven notes…[re & dha] are flats as in Bhairav, and hence it is essentially a morning melody. Ali Akbar Khan renders a composition in Prabhakali in a rhythmic cycle of 14 beats known as dhamar” (also see the jor sequences transcribed below, which primarily explore the mid-saptak region).
–Ali Akbar Khan (1964)–
• Raag Prabhat Bhairav •
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A morning form summarised by Bose as “a combination of three or four ragas dominated by the Bhairav-ang…with a touch of Lalit-ang only in the avroh (where both Ma come together)…The vadi Ma separates Prabhat Bhairav from Bhairav, while Pa keeps it away from Lalit” (also see the nearby Lalit Pancham). Pakad include GmG; rSrS; dNS; GmdP; mGr; GmMGrS. See an excellent demo by Mrinal Dhongade, who summarises it as “heart-warming: an uttarang-pradhan raga, with repeated nyas on shuddha ma”. Prakriti with Paraj and Poorvi – and thus far, the exclusive realm of vocalists.
–Sharad Sathe (2017)–
• Raag Prabhateshwari •
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A seldom-heard raga associated with bansuriya Hariprasad Chaurasia, which (to my ears) resembles a blend of the morning Ahir Bhairav and the late night Bageshri. His student Rajendra Teredesai describes it as having “all the hues…beautiful, complex, yet spiritually uplifting…full of pathos and bhakti ras, a state of perpetual divine bliss”. Prakriti with Ahiri and Jaiwanti Todi, the raga also resembles Parameshwari and Deen Todi via skipping Pa in aroha (e.g. Abhisek Borkar’s sarod solo) – although, given its rarity, detailed phraseological tendencies remain uncodified. I was initially unclear as to the raga’s origins – some pointed out how similar it sounded to a 1971 Mehdi Hasan ghazal (Go Zara Si Baat), while sarodiya Steve Oda emailed me stating that “My guru-ji [Ali Akbar Khan] taught this raga in May 1976, and suggested that its creation may have been by his sister, Annapurna Devi”. Intrigued at the prospect that Hindustani music’s most elusive modern guru might have devised her own new raga, I had to investigate – but after a long and winding search (assisted by a crack team of experts including Rupak Kulkarni, Alam Khan, George Ruckert, Suresh Vyas, Anindya Banerjee, and Gopi Shanker) I was eventually able to confirm Prabhateshwari as a Chaurasia creation, with his first known recording coming in 1970 (although, given Devi was his guru, the raga is still very much part of her sonic legacy too). Read the full tale below, including more on the raga’s historical lineage and melodic workings. The name, while directly translating as ‘Goddess of Dawn’, simultaneously implies a ‘Morning Bageshri’ [‘prabhat’ means dawn; and the ‘-eshwari’ comes from ‘Bageshwari’].
–Rakesh Chaurasia (2018)–
• Raag Purba •
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A rare raga of the Jaipur-Atrauli gharana, described by Rajan Parrikar as “essentially Raag Poorvi adorned with bells and whistles” – in particular, the Ma-mixing catchphrases Sm, mGP and MMPPd, dNdP. Refer to the Rajshekhar Mansur bandish transcribed below, which showcases uttarang forays of MP, PdNdP and a prominent M\G glide. Mewati innovator Pandit Jasraj also recorded his own captivating interpretation, seasoned by the liberal inclusion of shuddha Dha – as has Imdadkhani master Vilayat Khan on the surbahar. Not to be confused with Purva, although the two ragas share melodic territory (and mistitlings are common).
–Rajshekhar Mansur (~1990s)–
• Raag Puriya •
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A prominent sunset raga, Puriya takes the same six swaras as Marwa and Sohini, reworking them to present a distinct set of melodic forces. Renditions tend to focus on mandra and madhya saptak, seeking a relatively even balance between ascending and descending phrases – with its character often considered more ‘melodic’ than Marwa (which is comparatively ‘geometric’). Some describe its mood as one of ‘sombre piety’, while others find more playful essences in its strange vibrations, built around a strong Ga-Ni sangati and MMG pakad. Particularly beloved by Kirana vocalist Bhimsen Joshi, the raga is also said to have captivated a young Bhatkhande (“I heard Puriya from a famous Muslim gayak, and for a few moments I was lost to the world…”).
–Bismillah Khan (1993)–
• Raag Puriya Dhanashree •
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Like the scale-congruent Shree, Puriya Dhanashree’s versatile hemitonic clusters outline a major triad (SGP) with the first and last steps ‘enclosed’ by their neighbours to present two sets of three adjacent swaras (NSr, MPd). Pa, while often omitted in aroha, exerts its gravity on descending melodies, easing the tension of the tivra Ma by providing temporary anchor for weaving lines which may span all seven swaras. Ni is used as a launchpoint for Sa-skipping motions (e.g. NrGMP; NrNdP), elaborated with vakra meend and other expressive ornaments. Associated with the sunset hours, the raga’s origins lie in an archaic blending of Puriya and Dhanashree, with this form finding mention in lakshanagranthas including Faqirullah’s Rag Darpan, written for Emperor Aurangzeb in 1666. Proximate to Poorvi (which adds shuddha ma), and prakriti with Basant, Jaitashree, and Tankeshree.
–Parveen Sultana (2018)–
• Raag Puriya Kalyan •
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Effectively combining the poorvang of Puriya Dhanashree with the uttarang of Yaman, Puriya Kalyan covers the seven swaras of Marwa thaat. Pa is prominent in descent, but may be skipped in Kalyanic ascending passages such as MDNS – and Sa is often omitted in both upward and downward motions, with mandra saptak Ni favoured as a melodic starting point. Tanarang gives illustrative combinations of NrG, GMMG, MDNDP; GMDNSN, DNrSNDP; MrG, rS, while Dhyanesh Khan describes it as bringing “a sublime mood of devotion and peace”. Raja highlights its proximity with Purva, recounting that, “At a concert in L.A. in 1991, Vilayat Khan [argued] that Purva is the same as Puriya Kalyan…[However] Bhatkhande looked at this issue in the 1940s, when Purva was a mature raga and Puriya Kalyan had just begun to gain acceptance, and concluded that they are different: he connected Puriya Kalyan with the [Carnatic] Gamanashrama parent scale, and Purva he attributes to a combination of Poorvi, Maru, and Gauri”. Modern renditions span the spectrum of ‘Puriya add Pa’ to ‘Yaman komal re’.
–Kaushiki Chakraborty (2019)–
• Raag Purva •
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As per Deepak Raja’s insightful analysis, “Purva [bears] resemblance to Puriya in terms of swara material, phraseology, melodic centre of gravity, and aural impression” – also adding that, while sitarist Vilayat Khan considered the raga indistinguishable from Puriya Kalyan, it is in fact marked out by “differential weightages given to different segments of the octave…It is difficult for two ragas of such subtle differentiation to coexist”. Attributed by Bhatkhande, based on limited textual evidence, as having derived from “a combination of Poorvi, Maru, and Gauri” (also see Puriya Dhanashree). Distinct from Purba (although mistitlings are common) – and some renditions seem to take a komal dha rather than the shuddha.
–Ulhas Kashalkar (~2010s)–
• Raag Rageshri •
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Working along the lines of a ‘shuddha Ga Bageshri with shades of Khamaj’, the early-night Rageshri enjoys popularity among vocalists and instrumentalists alike. Like Bageshri, Re is often weak in ascent, and the ma-Dha sangati is strong – while unlike Bageshri, Pa is varjit throughout (likely as a result of shuddha Ga destroying the whole-tone symmetry of Bageshri’s mPDmg catchphrase). This brings consistent prominence to shuddha ma, which is often used to set up emphatic downward resolutions, e.g. Gm, mGRS (n.b. although the raga formerly featured both Ni variants, it now restricts itself to the komal only). Described by santooriya Tarun Bhattacharya as “reflected through the emotions, depth, and sweetness of romanticism”, Rageshri’s precise origins are uncertain: Joep Bor argues that the modern Rageshri only rose to widespread fame around the turn of the 20th century, although an older sampurna form, presumed as an offshoot of the Bageshri lineage, may have existed since Tansen’s time (see Aarshin Karande’s analysis below) – while Abhirang has recorded “an older form of Rageshri” entitled Shringeri. [n.b. The ‘Khambavati’ sung in the Jaipur-Atrauli gharana is essentially identical to the modern Rageshri: although Khambavati’s usual SRGmPDnS scale lies nearby anyway.]
–Venkatesh Kumar (2020)–
• Raag Rageshri Bahar •
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A double-Ga, double-Ni fusion of Rageshri and Bahar, with the former dominating the aural impression. Abhirang, basing his analysis on a V.R. Athavale bandish, gives characteristic movements of DnSGm; mPgm; nDNS; DnSGmRS; SDnPm – while Subbha Rao’s Raga Nidhi Vol. 4 states that “the vadi is ma, and samvadi is Sa…Re is not used in aroha, and there are vakra sancharis…Bahar-ang is restricted to uttarang only”). Recorded by several over the years, including singers Aditya Modak, Pradeep Chatterji, Vasant Thakar, and Ram Deshpande, and sarodiya Radikha Mohan Maitra. Also see proximate compounds such as Tilang Bahar and Rageshri Kanada.
–V.R. Athavale (1988)–
• Raag Rageshri Kanada •
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A seldom-heard Rageshri variant which incorporates Kanada-flavoured poorvang phrases. The only full-length recording I was able to find is a fascinating 1960 album rendition by Dhrupad vocal legend Rahimuddin Khan Dagar (Ganga Jata Shiv: transcribed below), which incorporates shuddha Re and komal ga in curious adjacent movements such as SR(Gg)G, G(g)R. Intriguingly, the komal ga is often intoned with a notably higher sruti than usual (e.g. SR(Gg)G, G(g)R), at times even crossing the ‘quarter-tone’ boundary to blur its distinction with shuddha Ga (n.b. also see Lagan Gandhar, Kumar Gandharva’s ‘triple-Ga’ creation, as well as the Dagarvani concept of ‘non-zero Sa’). Aside from this take, the only other example I could trace is a riyaz session by bansuriya and environmental activist Satya Vayu (“from a selection of rough recordings”). Compare to prakriti ragas including Malgunji, Lankeshwari, and Neelambari.
–Rahimuddin Khan Dagar (1990)–
• Raag Raisa Kanada •
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Despite regional variances, Raisa Kanada is generally considered to be distinguished by an idiosyncratic sequence involving shuddha Dha – given by Ramrang as nDPDPmP. Most interpretations fall close to Shahana (the two names have similar meaning: shahana: ‘of royal demeanour’, ‘raisa’: ‘rich, noble-born’) – with some also linking the raga to Nayaki Kanada, Kafi, Bageshri, and Darbari. Manjiri Asanare-Kelkar explores Dha-laden lines of DnP; PD(nD)m; mPDn; S\D/n\P in her Darbar 2012 rendition – and offers “very important phrases” of nPmgm; RSR; mPDnS; PSDnPDm; mPDnP; nmPmg; PmPmgm; RSR in her excellent breakdown (which differentiates Nayaki and Shahana phrases using hand gestures). Also refer to renditions by Ramprapanna Bhattacharya (on surbahar), Vikas Kashalkar (a Gwalior rework), and Arun Dravid (“for an intimate concert which highlighted the [Jaipur-Atrauli] speciality ragas”, accompanied by esraj).
–Manjiri Asnare-Kelkar (2012)–
• Raag Raj Kalyan •
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A ‘Kalyan no Pa’ melody devised by Gwalior vocal innovator Vasantrao Deshpande (although he may well have seen it more like a ‘Marwa shuddha Re’). Parrikar describes how “the relief-inducing nyas on Pa is missing, giving a ‘restive’ persona”, while Ocean of Ragas gives a pakad of GmD, DmGR, NRS. Generally treated as hexatonic in both ascent and descent, although some artists may render the Re as durbal on the way up – and debate contunues as to whether the vadi-samvadi are Ga-Ni (the ‘natural’ geometric choice) or Re-Dha (as per the Marwa-ang). Jaipur-Atrauli vocalist Arun Dravid notes in a 2020 lecture that Raj Kalyan’s SRGMDNS swara set is an exact match for the near-extinct Maru, now better-known as a parent of Maru Bihag (Dravid mentions that some artists use the names interchangeably: although to my ears, Raj Kalyan is a distinct form). Also prakriti with Hindol Kalyan, an ultra-rare raga sung by Amir Khan and a handful of others.
–Vasantrao Deshpande (1975)–
• Raag Rajeshwari •
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Taking the swaras of ‘Kaushik Dhwani komal ga’ (or ‘Chandrakauns shuddha Dha’), Rajeshwari’s five tones bring an idiosyncratic flavour, tied with diffuse tensions. All poorvang swaras are set to their lowest specific position (Sgm), and all uttarang swaras are set to their highest (DNS), with the relief-bringing Re-Pa axis banished throughout. The resulting scale presents significant challenges when it comes to stable melodic resolution: possessing the rare property of ‘fragmentation’ (i.e. at least half its swaras are ‘detached’, with no swara 7 semitones above or below them: in this case ga-Dha-Ni) – as well as a curious ma-Ni tritone, prominent in the droning harmonium tones of Salamat Ali Khan’s rendition (live from an Amritsar Gurdwara, and prefaced by a speech by the Ustad on multi-faith tolerance). Abdul Halim Jaffer Khan, progenitor of the underappreciated ‘Jafferkhani’ sitar baaj, has also recorded it – as has Adnan Khan, who sings the bandish as well as playing it (at times tempting the ear towards a ma-murchana, bringing chayas of Vachaspati and Amirkhani Kauns). Some sources connect Rajeshwari to Malkauns and Chandrakauns (other audav night ragas comprising the generic swaras Sa-Ga-Ma-Dha-Ni, with a strong ma-Sa axis) – and it is prakriti with the seldom-heard and similarly-constructed Bhinna Kauns (n.b. some make no distinction between them).
–Adnan Khan (2022)–
• Raag Ramdasi Malhar •
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A diverse sankirna raga, fabled as a creation of Guru Ram Das – a 16th-century Sikh saint said to have opened Emperor Akbar’s eyes to the unity of the divine (“these jagirs [feudal land grants] are sources of evil passions, pride, and ego…it is by the name of God that all creatures, continents, worlds, and spheres are sustained…”). Today’s Ramdasi Malhar exists in several guises, generally summarisable as ‘Miyan ki Malhar double-Ga’ with the komal confined to the avroh. Tanarang, who calls the raga “soothing and heavy”, highlights the ma-Re, Re-Pa, & ni-Pa sangatis, and suggests PgmRS to end taans – and Parrikar notes ‘special pragoyas’ of SRGGm, mGm; mPDN DPmGm; SDnP, mPDnP, while cautioning that “no general [chalan] can be written down, given the disparate strategies adopted”.
–Venkatesh Kumar (2016)–
• Raag Ramkali •
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Resembling ‘Bhairav with touches of tivra Ma and komal ni in avroh’, Ramkali is an early morning raga, often associated with Sikh saintly traditions – with one author recounting that “the emotions in Ramkali are like those of a wise teacher disciplining their student, who is aware of the pain of learning” (although classical ragmala paintings commonly depict the raga using more romantic imagery: “A vivacious woman anxiously awaits her lover, [who] she suspects he has been with another woman…”). Though generally similar to Bhairav, Ramkali focuses more on madhya and taar saptak, also rendering re and dha with less oscillation. Dhrupadyas may set their tritonal re-Pa sangati to subtly higher sruti (see non-zero Sa).
–Omkar Dadarkar (2017)–
• Raag Rampriya •
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A mysterious sampurna form which follows the swara set of ‘Ahir Bhairav tivra Ma’, ‘Vachaspati komal re’, or ‘Puriya Kalyan komal ni’ (I’ve also seen the scale referred to as ‘Persian Vachaspati’ and ‘Ram Puriya Kalyan’). The ‘Rampriya’ moniker derives from a congruent Carnatic raga, although it is unclear whether this is a post-hoc addition or a hint at its Hindustani origins – especially given that Amir Khan’s rendition is explicitly based on a Persian ruba’i (4-line rhyming poem) penned by Sarmand Kashani, an Armenian-born mystic who moved to India in the early 17th-century, becoming a naked faqir (wandering ascetic) and eventually being beheaded by Aurangzeb. Khan’s Rampriya, said to have been recorded at the Ranchi Rotary Club Hall in 1971, soon after he had recovered from a bout of pneumonia, also features subtle touches of shuddha ma (n.b. at times, the tabla accompanist struggled: “[Khan] interrupts himself to explain the tempo of the ‘Ti-Re-Ki-Te’, but the…cumulative beats of his ‘jhoomra’ fall somewhere around 21, rather than 14. The incredible part is that Khansahib was so gracious, he managed to mould his performance around this mistaken accompaniment”). The raga has since been sung by Gokulotsavji Maharaj, set to his own fresh bandish – and is prakriti with the ultra-rare Indira Kalyan.
–Amir Khan (1971)–
• Raag Rang Malhar •
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From my 2018 Darbar interview with Rupak Kulkarni: “Rang Malhar happened by chance. It was the rainy season, and I was playing in a monsoon festival. I was the last performer, and by the time my turn came then all types of Malhar family ragas had been played already. I thought I should come up with a different one: and Rang Malhar [‘Colourful Malhar’] came out. It is quite a unique combination, mixing Shuddha Sarang and Miyan ki Malhar”. Seemingly just a one-off for this particular occasion, and so far unrecorded in any official format (…the swara set suggested below is just an ‘addition’ of its two parents – also see Miyan ki Sarang, which shares conceptual proximity). [UPDATE] In Dec 2025, Kulkarni finally released a full 40-min rendition of the raga on his YouTube channel (Pt.1 & Pt.2) – featuring a divine refrain of nDNS DnP, m\RS (m)RMP amidst other fascinations, including sections where his bansuri circle harmonise this refrain with layered countermelodies. In his description he states that, “Rang Malhar is a beautiful blend of Shuddha Sarang and Miyan Malhar. Created in 2001, it evokes both veera and bhakti rasas. Traditionally associated with the monsoon season, it can be rendered at any time during this period”. Further analysis to follow!
–Rupak Kulkarni (2025)–
• Raag Rangeshwari •
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Like Parameshwari and Gangeshwari, Rangeshwari (‘Lordess of Colours’) was created in 1968 via murchana rotation of Ravi Shankar’s Kameshwari (itself dreamed up during a car journey through Bengal). Resembles a ‘no Dha’ filtering of either Patdeep or Kirwani, although its shape seems to be unique – with Shankar’s takes tending towards wide-open, poorvang-dominant movements. Ni, as a leading-tone to Sa with a wide gap beneath, assumes prominence (and allows for the outline of a PNR major triad) – also lying close to Sindhura.
–Ravi Shankar (1972)–
• Raag Rasaranjani •
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A rare, oddly-shaped audav raga formed by omitting Ga and Pa from Bilawal thaat – essentially, ‘removing the major triad from the major scale’ (it can also be seen as ‘Bhavani plus Ni’, Rajeshwari Re-for-ga’, or ‘Durga Ni-for-Pa’). Vocalist Sakuntala Narasimhan, introducing a drut khayal, cites Rasaranjani as an innovation of her Rampur gharana guru Hafeez Ahmed Khan, presumably derived from the Carnatic Rasa Ranjani (hear his 1980 recording) – describing it as “very unusual: I’ve never heard anyone sing this raga…it has hints of pathos”. Offers a strong ma-murchana, although this is balanced by the fact that ‘Ni>Sa’ is the only chromatic resolution available.
–Sakuntala Narasimhan (~1990s)–
• Raag Rasikpriya •
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A direct borrowing of Carnatic music’s 72nd melakarta scale: which, as the final position on the wheel, has all its swaras set to their highest allowable positions. In Hindustani music, the equivalent principle would produce Yaman (SRGMPDNS), but the South Indian system allows three variants for each of Re, Ga, Dha, & Ni, with the highest Re/Dha positions matching the lower Ga/Ni options (i.e. ‘tivra Re’=komal ga; ‘tivra Dha’=komal ni, spelled in Carnatic as ‘Ru/Du’ or ‘R3/D3’: see my Melakarta breakdown for more). Thus, Rasikpriya takes ‘double-Ga, double-Ni’ (SgGMPnNS), producing a scale which resembles a tivra Ma version of Jog’s older double-Ni form (‘Do Nishad ka Jog’: also compare to Tilang). Seemingly introduced to the North by Shivkumar Sharma, who recorded several spellbinding renditions: notably the extended 1991 take below, from an all-night concert in Stuttgart with Zakir Hussain. Since taken up by the santooriya’s disciples, including student Valmik Dhande and son Rahul Sharma, who, in early 2024, got in touch with me: “Rasikpriya is a personal favourite due to its unusual scale; I love playing it, but not too often – as this keeps its rare quality alive and mysterious, as is the sound…”. Compare to DoGa Kalyan, Ravi Shankar’s orchestral setting of a similar concept (‘Double-Ga Kalyan’, equivalent to ‘Yaman tivra Re’: SgGMPDNS).
–Shivkumar Sharma (1994)–
• Raag Rati Bhairav •
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An idiosyncratic ‘double-Dha’ invention of vocalist Kumar Gandharva (also the creator of Bhavmat Bhairav, Bihad Bhairav, Saheli Todi, Lagan Gandhar, & Madhusurja), which blends Bhairav with Ahir Bhairav. As per Milap Rane, “Rati Bhairav is a jod raga, [with] Ahir Bhairav overshadowing Bhairav…This raga symbolises the union of Shiva [Bhairav] and Shakti [Ahir Bhairav]. The name signifies this union [‘Rati’ is the Hindu goddess of lust and erotic union]”. The invaluable RICMP channel, citing the analysis of Shilpa Bahulekar, offers dha-mixing catchphrases including dNS; mPDnS, SdNS, SDnPm. Aside from a reworked Bhairav tarana, Gandharva left behind only a single dedicated bandish (Aruna Aake Kiran Ranga Phekyo: later picked up by his son Mukul Shivputra). Compare to other ‘double Dha Bhairav’ ragas including Kabiri Bhairav, Tilak Bhairav, and Virat Bhairav.
–Kumar Gandharva (~1980s)–
• Raag Reva •
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A rare pentatonic raga, Reva is often described as the ‘evening counterpart’ to Bibhas (or the ‘jawab to its sawal’), matching this samay designation by taking after the Poorvi-ang rather than Bibhas’ Bhairav-ang roots. Chiefly, its movements are distinguished from Bibhas via poorvang-focused sangatis including Gr; rS; SrrS, along with a greater exploration of the Shree-ang in mandra and low madhya saptak. Shuddha Ga assumes natural prominence as the only detached swara, and the only tone to lie on the scale’s Ga-ni reflection axis – with the raga’s form also possessing the rare property of ‘centredness’ (i.e. its ‘constellation’ balances at the swara wheel’s exact centre). Refer to a rendition by sarodiya Joydeep Mukherjee, and a vocal take by the appropriately-named Rewa Natu (“Dr. Abhijit had been insisting I sing it for quite some time. Finally I discussed it with my guru Chaitanya Kunte…He not only guided me, but composed a new bandish in the raga”). Not to be confused with the Carnatic ‘Revati’, which lies closer to Bairagi.
–Joydeep Mukherjee (2021)–
• Raag Rishabhapriya •
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Already a rare mode in Carnatic music (mela #62), Rishabhapriya has barely been touched by Hindustani musicians. Equivalent to ‘Charukeshi tivra Ma’ or ‘Vachaspati komal dha’, all poorvang swaras are set to their highest specific positions, and all uttarang swaras are at their lowest (SRGM+PdnS: like ‘Yaman’s poorvang + Bhairavi’s uttarang’). The rare Ma–ni sangati is on stark display, and artists must navigate a highly distinctive ‘whole-tone run’ occupying most of the scale form (dnSRG: ‘2-2-2-2’: shared by Charukeshi, Imratkauns, & Sehera). Like its murchana partner Kokilapriya, Rishabhapriya has 5 ‘imperfect’ swaras (=those with no swara a perfect 5th above them) and 4 ‘detached’ swaras (=with no swaras a perfect 5th above or below), in both cases the theoretical maximum for a 7-note scale – bringing a dispersed, fragmented feel to its melodies. So far, the only formal Hindustani recording I can find is a 2025 release by Abhirang, who demonstrates the scale’s multifaceted possibilities with slow, patient vocal elaborations across all three octaves (alap transcribed below). Also compare to Shanmukhpriya (komal ga instead) and Latangi (shuddha Ni instead), as well as other ‘fragmented’ ragas (=over half the swaras are ‘detached’), and other members of the ‘32 thaat’ (=all possible 7-swara sampurna scales). I hope that more Hindustani performers will soon be tempted by the challenge of Rishabhapriya’s strange, unresolving geometries…
–Abhirang (2025)–
• Raag Roopkali •
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A variation of Ramkali, which is distinguished through a general avoidance of komal ni and sporadic inclusion of shuddha Re. Renditions generally focus on the mid-scale region, with all five specific swaras from shuddha Ga to komal dha available for use (GmMPd). Khadim Hussain Khan’s twisting melodies tend to pair tivra Ma with Pa above, and shuddha ma with Re below (e.g. PMP; mRm), also co-opting Bhairav’s G\rS descent phrase in a bewitching overall blend. Refer to similar renditions by Yunus Hussain Khan and Aslam Hussain Khan – as well as the only other ‘double-Re, double-Ma’ ragas I can definitively trace: Madhusurja and Gaurimanjari.
–Khadim Hussain Khan (~1970s)–
• Raag Saheli Todi •
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An invention of vocalist Kumar Gandharva, lying between Bhupali Todi and Bilaskhani Todi via the addition of an avroh komal ni to the former (or the subtraction of ma from the latter). His original renditions linger patiently on the komal re (intoned with a noticeably higher sruti than usual), and often avoid rising more than a few tones above mandra saptak for long stretches (dS, Srgr). Pa tends to be weak, and is suppressed entirely for extended segments of his explorations. While I can’t source anything in the way of firsthand melodic instructions, the Gandharva-themed 2023 Kaaljayee Festival featured “aesthetic decoration of the stage, which had notations of the maestro’s composition in Saheli Todi in the backdrop” (blurrily visible here).
–Kumar Gandharva (1961)–
• Raag Sakh •
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Despite their historic renown, the Sakh family is seldom-heard in the modern era. While nomenclature varies, the ‘main’ Sakh raga is generally held to be a Khamaj-prakriti form, with mood and movements proximate to Rageshri and Gaoti – evident in Patiala pair Amanat & Fateh Ali Khan’s soothing ma-focused rendition, built around characteristic phrases including GmRS, S(nS) G(m)m and GmRS; RSn(Dn)S. Sources are scant on most other aspects of the raga’s lineage: some report that a close Lucknow variant is known as ‘Rageshri Pancham’ – and the closely overlapping Lachasakh (SRGmDnNS) is fabled as a ‘Khusro raga’: suggesting that its historic mythology stretches back to the 13th-century era of Amir Khusro, the legendary poet-composer of the Delhi Sultanate (…although admittedly, several other Khusro creations have no discernible links to him: see Sazgiri & Zeelaf). Also refer to other ‘Sakhs’ (which will eventually have their own Index pages): including Devsakh (SRgmPnS), Ramsakh (SRGmPDnNS), Bhavsakh (SRgmPDnS), and Nishasakh (SRGmDnNS), as well as the barely-traceable Gunsakh and Hanumatsakh. Further info very welcome!
–Amanat & Fateh Ali Khan (1970)–
• Raag Salagavarali •
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A rare ‘Ahiri no ma’ scale, combining a Todi-like poorvang with an Ahir Bhairavic uttarang. As per Parrikar: “S.N. Ratanjankar conceived of this raga…ma is eliminated to yield the following contour: SrgPDnDS; SnDPgPrgrS. Brilliantly exploited by Jitendra Abhisheki in a celebrated natyageeta. Watch out for the injection of a vivadi dosha via tivra Ma”. Said to have been derived from the Carnatic Shadvidmargini (‘One with the path to 100 forms of knowledge’), the 46th melakarta: and also see other Ratanjankar-linked ragas such as Viyogavarali, Devgandhari Todi, & Basant Mukhari.
–Mohan Darekar (2021)–
• Raag Samant Sarang •
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A Sarang raga which, while infrequently performed, has found stable root in several vocal and instrumental gharanas. As per Parrikar, “shuddha Dha taken in vakra prayogas is the definitive theme, including tonal sentences of the type RmP; RmPDnDPmR; RmR; mDP. Some employ both Ni, others have use for only the komal…There is an occasional avirbhav of Desh…Ramrang’s vilambit composition [Humri Sudh Kahe Bisari Udho] comes with an arresting mukhda that swiftly scythes to the raga’s core”. Recorded by disparate artists including sitarist Ravi Shankar, sarodiya Debashish Bhattacharya, scholar-singer Ulhas Kashaklar, and Jaipur-Atrauli stalwart Vijaya Jadhav Gatlewar (who renders a Bhatkhande bandish). Also see other Sarang offshoots including Ambika Sarang and Saraswati Sarang – as well as the prakriti Surdasi Malhar and Miyan ki Sarang.
–Ulhas Kashalkar (2015)–
• Raag Sameshwari •
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An intriguing experiment in drawing direct inspiration from the distant past, Sameshwari is a creation of musicologist and vichtra veena maestro Lalmani Misra, inspired by his study of ancient Vedic chant practices. As explained by his daughter Ragini Trivedi, “Sameshwari is an attempt to preserve the notes used in Sāmgana [Vedic hymn singing]…Sāmik chanters [originally] used three notes, but singers explored further and discovered more, with mGRSD [as] the basic set”. This sequence is then mirrored in uttarang as SnDPG, producing a Khamaj-congruent scale of SRGmPDnS – with Trivedi listing a Pa-Sa vadi-samvadi (“you will come across greater thaharav [stability] on Pancham, and you will enjoy staying on it”), and recommending that Re and ma are treated as “passing notes, which should be touched without staying, they are not to be used while ascending”. Compare to Kalavati (which matches the SGPDnS aroha) and Rageshri (which similarly uses DnSGmRS as a conclusion phrase) – and to learn more about the life and music of Lalmani Misra, read a brief bio from Omenad (“His creative works were in several directions: one can only marvel at his orchestral compositions, and in 1961 he composed and presented an opera, Meera Bai…It was his keen interest and visionary attitude that has made B.H.U. a center for the study of ancient Samic studies…”).
–Ragini Trivedi (2018)–
• Raag Sampurna Malkauns •
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More of an umbrella term for assorted ‘sampurna-modified Malkauns’ renditions than a specific form (i.e. with Re and Pa added, thus completing the sapta swara). As per Deepak Raja: “Amongst the various manifestations of the concept, the most celebrated is that of Kesarbai Kerkar…[which] uses 9 swaras [SRgGmPdDnS] instead of the minimum 7. Its inventory of phrases is drawn explicitly from Malkauns, Bageshri, & Kafi”. Kerkar’s fellow Jaipur-Atrauli vocalist Mogubai Kurdikar’s interpretations follow along relatively simpler lines, matching Malkauns’ audav aroha with the seven swaras of Asavari thaat on the way down. Also see Kaunsi Kanada (a form of ‘Sampurna Malkauns’), as well as Pancham Malkauns.
–Kishori Amonkar (1991)–
• Raag Sanjh Saravali •
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Taking the general form of ‘Yaman Kalyan seasoned with Bihag’, Sanjh Saravali (‘Evening Melody’) was devised by Vilayat Khan in the late 1970s. Fellow Imdadkhani sitarist Deepak Raja, aided by input from Vilayat himself, describes the raga as “incorporating fleeting impressions of several [Kalyan] ragas, including Nand Kalyan and Chayanat…its melodic identity rests on hide-and-seek between several allied ragas” (see avirbhav/tirobhav) – revolving around an alternation between “Yaman Kalyan in the lower octave and lower tetrachord [PMGmRG]…and phrases from Bihag [NDNSN] in uttarang”, amidst a “nondescript treatment of the two Ma swaras”. Raja adds that “the Ustad described it as a ‘beautiful [melody] which had composed itself’…Sanjh Saravali evokes a combination of the tranquil and the solemn. There might be a hint of the romantic, but it is a stoic romanticism, devoid of any vivacity…”). Since recorded by Ulhas Kashalkar and Baljit Singh (on the tar shehnai). Also see other Vilayat creations including Pancham se Pilu (a murchana of the parent raga) and Enayetkhani Kanada (initially named after himself, then retitled in honour of his father).
–Vilayat Khan (2000)–
• Raag (Brindabani) Sarang •
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The Sarang raga lineage, often linked to 16th-century mystic-musician Swami Haridas, is also associated with snake-charming rituals of the past. Brindabani Sarang, named for Uttar Pradesh’s Vrindavan region, is the principal raga of this group – and is believed to have brought an incarnation of Krishna to earth when Haridas sung it for the first time. The raga is associated with the blazing midday sun, and consequently tends to be expounded in madhya and taar saptak. Re (the vadi) is typically played ‘unadorned’: free of slides, trills, or other ornaments. Similar to a double-Ni variant of Madhumad Sarang, while also belonging to the Jog murchana set.
–Jayateerth Mevundi (2017)–
• Raag Sarangkauns •
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A rare audav raga of bewitching beauty, taking the form of ‘Malkauns with shuddha Re instead of ga’. As the name implies, the adoption of Re allows for poorvang shades of Sarang (SRm, mR), set in contrast to distinctive Malkauns turnarounds in uttarang (Snd, dnS). Like both Malkauns and Madhumad Sarang, the scale shape comprises ‘three jumps of 2 semitones, and two jumps of 3 semitones’ – but these intervals are reordered to open up tritonal dissonance via the Re-dha sangati (compare to other ‘2-3-3-2-2’ murchanas including Tivrakauns and Veenavadini). Renditions are few and far between – I first encountered the raga through Parveen Sultana’s divine 1997 album release, exploring a pair of bandish (Guru Charanan Raj & Jagi Ri Sari Yamini) with controlled intensity punctuated by florid ornaments and moments of dramatic release. Since recorded by rare raga explorers Devashish Dey and Abhirang (who offers a pakad of Rmdndm, dR, mRndS, and advises against undue pause on komal ni) – also see an oddly captivating take by Dhananjay Dhumal on the ‘vividha tarangini’ (essentially a Roland Fantom-06 keyboard-synth with extensive use of the pitch-wheel). In recent years, the raga has made its way into Carnatic music, with excellent interpretations from Delhi Shankar Bhagavathar (a vocal show in Oman) and V.K. Raman (a tanpura-less venu flute recording). n.b. The ‘Sarangkauns’ name is also applied to an ultra-rare ‘Sarang + Chandrakauns’ blend sung in Kirtan: see Chandraprabha for more on this SRmdNS scale form.
–Parveen Sultana (1997)–
• Raag Saraswati •
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Derived as a ‘janya’ offshoot of the Carnatic Vachaspati (the 64th melakarta scale), Saraswati is named after the four-armed Hindu goddess of music, art, and learning – also venerated in Thailand as ‘Surasawadee’, Myanmar as ‘Thurathadi’, China as ‘Biancaitian’, and Tibet as ‘Yang-Chen-Ma’ (the word derives from ‘saras+wati’: ‘she who possesses flowing water’, associated with Harappan-era worship of a long-extinct Ghaggar-Hakra River). The raga which bears her name is marked by a wide aroha jump from Re to tivra Ma (although artists such as Amjad Ali Khan often ‘compresses’ this gap via a very low Ma sruti), with Ma also used as a kan between Pa and Re – and the inclusion of komal ni notably recolouring avroh motions (e.g. DSnD; MPnD; MRnDS). Some performers may emphasise the Kalyan-ang, while others look to the raga’s Southern roots for inspiration. Rampur-Sahaswan vocalist Ghulam Mustafa Khan reportedly stated that he was “the first artist to attempt Raag Saraswati in North India” (also adding context to the rendition on his 1975 debut album: “Remembering my friend and brother Ustad Salamat Ali Khan, who several times said, ‘I am listening to your recording, and loving Saraswati more and more…”). Also see Saraswati Kedar and Saraswati Sarang – as well as Kameshwari, a prakriti creation of Ravi Shankar.
–Shahid Parvez Khan (2021)–
• Raag Saraswati Kedar •
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A double-Ma, double-Ni raga created by Gwalior vocalist and educator Vishwanath Rao Ringe ‘Tanarang’ (also see Hemshri, Sundarkauns, and Jogeshwari Pancham). Characteristic phrases from Saraswati (RRMMP; MPDnDP; nDS) are intermingled with those of Kedar (MPDNS; PDPm; mGP; SRS; mmRS), with shuddha Ga only used in occasional avroh movements. Also see prakriti ragas including Nat Bihag, Chandni Kedar, and Manj Khamaj – and learn more about Tanarang himself in a brief bio article (“credited for composing more than 1800 bandishen in about 200 ragas…the minute details of all ragas can be heard, which not only created magic, but touched the heart…He taught music till his last breath…”).
–Prakash Vishwanath Ringe (2000)–
• Raag Saraswati Sarang •
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Despite the prachalit status of both its parents, the Saraswati + Sarang compound remains relatively rare. The best longform performance is that of vichitra veena maestro Gopal Krishnan (which revolves around an ear-catching nD MPDS pakad), who – as per a direct message from his grandson Akshat Sharma – created the raga (along with Tilak Malhar). Sharma also confirmed my suspicions that his grandfather’s invention has significant overlap with Ambika Sarang (aside from being prakriti, the term ‘Ambika’ is closely tied to the goddess Saraswati), as well as highlighting renditions by Rupak Kulkarni, Dinkar Panshikar, Tushar Dutta, Abhirang, and Ramprapanna Bhattacharya. Learn more about Krishnan in the album’s liner notes (“His father, himself a noted surbahar player, was his first guru…later, he became a foremost disciple of Ravi Shankar…He is also a good vocalist, and plays instruments such as jaltarang, tabla, guitar, and ektara [one-string folk-lute]…in the classical style”). Also discover the unique sounds of his vichitra veena (‘curious string instrument’), a seldom-seen 22-string creation which is pitch-controlled with a glass ball.
–Gopal Krishna (~1970s)–
• Raag Saurashtra Bhairav •
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A unique ‘double-Dha’ blend of the morning Bhairav with the night-time Bhinna Shadja, Saurashtra Bhairav’s movements vary across gharana boundaries. Abhirang, interpreting a pair of Ramrang compositions (Barani Na Jaye Chabi & Aba Main Kase Jaya Kahu), cites the importance of Bhinna Shadja’s mDNSNDm catchphrase – although most other movements fall in line with those of Bhairav. While the raga’s precise historical path is unclear, it origins are presumably linked to Gujarat’s Saurashtra peninsula region. Refer to renditions by Digvijay Vaidya, Ghulam Hasan Shaggan, Ramprapanna Bhattacharya (on surbahar), and Shrikant Bakre (bandish transcribed below) – and also compare to other ‘double-Dha Bhairav’ ragas such as Rati Bhairav, Virat Bhairav, and Kabiri Bhairav.
–Abhijith Shenoy ‘Abhirang’ (2021)–
• Raag Savani •
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An evening raga, which, despite its regular titling of ‘Savani Kalyan’, usually lies closer to Bihag than the Kalyan family – chiefly via avoiding tivra Ma, and giving greater strength to the Sa-Pa sangati. In the raga’s main incarnation, Dha and Ni are often rendered durbal, and may be skipped via PSP turnarounds (although Jaipur-Atrauli singers give Dha a role in runs such as GmD, DmPG) – however Moutal documents several alternate forms which draw more from the Kalyan-ang: including ‘Shuddha Kalyan + Nat’ (“mentioned by R. Vaze, but unexplained and probably obsolete”), ‘Shuddha Kalyan + Bihag’ (“chalan PmG; RS; GmGm; PGm; GRS; NDP; PNS”), and ‘Shuddha Kalyan + SmGm and a nyas on Dha’ (“given by Bhatkhande [and] performed during the first prahar of night…in this type, the Bihag element is reduced to the maximum”). Parrikar, highlighting the role of the mPG cluster, recommends four Bihag-ang renditions (all in jhaptal): by Ramrang (Deva Mahadeva), Kumar Gandharva (Jaane Akala Saba), Mogubai Kurdikar (Deva Deva Satsanga), and Mallikarjun Mansur (accompanied by his wife Gangamma).
–Narayanrao Bodas (2016)–
• Raag Sazgiri •
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Often described as being among the most complex of Hindustani forms, Sazgiri is fabled as a creation of Amir Khusro (1253-1325): the legendary Sufi poet, singer, and mystic of the Delhi Sultanate (although direct historical evidence for his authorship of the raga is admittedly scant). Komal dha is restricted to Poorvi-ang phrases such as PMdP; rNdP, and shuddha ma “manifests in a striking movement of Gm, mN(D)MG”, while other patterns may overlap with Puriya (MDNrS), Marwa (NrGMD), and Shree (MPNS). Modern forms of Sazgiri may vary significantly between different gharanas: while many renditions enrapture (e.g. Imdadkhani sitarists Shujaat and Vilayat Khan, who introduce shades of Yaman), the best I can find is by Patiala vocalist Fateh Ali Khan (transcribed below), which builds its twists and turns around a strong Pa vadi.
–Fateh Ali Khan (~1980s)–
• Raag Sehera •
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Among the strangest of raga scales, Sehera’s six swaras are all spaced out in two-semitone jumps (akin to the Western Whole-Tone scale and the Carnatic Gopriya). The resulting symmetries summon a curious, centreless mood (also famous as the ‘dream sequence’ of countless soundtracks) – best explored by sarangiya Sultan Khan, who described Sehera as “the forbidden scale”, and, after pre-recording it for All India Radio, reportedly requested that his session “should not be aired…it is too sad”. Thankfully, he did cut a haunting ghazal with Mehdi Hassan, manipulating a GMdS refrain over ambiguous harmonium drones (…what would you even tune a tanpura to?). The origins of name ‘Sehera/Sehra’ are unclear, but may relate to an Arabic term for ‘Desert’ (صحراء), perhaps hinting at the raga’s geographic origins. Also see a handful of curious prakritis below – and compare to Imratkauns (the same scale with shuddha ma instead).
–Mehdi Hassan (1977)–
• Raag Shahana •
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A late night raga, Shahana (literally: ‘Of Royal Demeanour’) is a close cousin of the more famous Bageshri, sharing the same swara set but focusing more on the use of shuddha Dha as a melodic endpoint – as well as a stronger and more consistent role for Pa. Usually classed as a member of the Kanada family, Raja notes that Shahana is linked in Medieval texts to a Persian melody known as ‘Firodast’, and also that poetry set to the raga often features descriptions of springtime and monsoons. Bor traces its lineage back to the mid-17th century texts of Faqirullah, which describe it as a blend of Kanada phrases with “Farudasht, supposedly a creation of Amir Khusro” – also outlining the modern raga’s poorvang-affinity with Adana and Bahar.
–Anupama Bhagwat (2014)–
• Raag Shankara •
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Long fabled as a favourite of Lord Shiva, Shankara (‘Auspicious’) takes its name from a famous epithet of the deity (Rajan Parrikar: “the musical embodiment of [Shiva’s] personality, comporting with all its attributes: raudra, veera, irascible, volatile, capricious…”). A pre-midnight raga, it ascends with SGPDNS, often in vakra patterns, before adding subtle touches of shuddha Re in avroh. In Tanarang’s similarly vivid description, “You wake up from a stupor or disturbed state of mind upon hearing Shankara, a surge of life force…Veera rasa is the best expression of this raga, with raudra roop for the tandav [destruction dance] of Lord Shankara”. Also refer to an AUTRIM pitch-graph, mapping the swirling movements of a Dagarvani vocal rendition by Uday Bhawalkar. Historically associated with a trio of seldom-heard variants: Shankara Aran (SGMPDNS), Shankara Bharan (SRGmMPDNS), and Shankara Karan (SRGMPDnNS) – however Parrikar notes that “all of them have gone out of fashion, and…no consensus prevails on their movements”.
–Purbayan Chatterjee (2019)–
• Raag Shankara Karan •
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Associated with the crisp mornings of springtime, Shankara Karan is variously said to blend elements of Shankara, Shree, Hindol, and Yaman – although its swara set (‘Yaman double Ni’) is seldom-heard in the Hindustani ragascape (also hear the ultra-rare Guru Kalyan & Kala Kalyan). Recordings are rare, with the most prominent cut being a 1995 sadra duet by Ali Akbar Khan & Asha Bhosle (Ananda Mukha Chanda: ‘Her face looks bright and happy…’), which gives special prominence to a turnaround of PDNSn\P (as per the liner notes, penned by Khan himself: “These compositions date back to the 16th century. [My father] learned them from his guru Mohammed Wazir Khan, who learned them from Amir Khan, and so on…[They] were composed by Tansen and others from the Senia gharana”). Parrikar recommends Ali Akbar Khan’s solo take (“Alubhai virtually eliminates Re and ropes in elements of Khamaj…the play on double-Ni is masterly”), as well as K.G. Ginde’s differing interpretation (“tivra Ma is deployed to evoke chayas of both Kalyan and Hindol”). Historically placed in a trio with the seldom-heard Shankara Aran (SGMPDNS) and Shankara Bharan (SRGmMPDNS), with Parrikar noting that “all of them have gone out of fashion, and furthermore, no consensus prevails on their movements”.
–Ali Akbar Khan (1997)–
• Raag Shanmukhpriya •
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A strange scale imported from the Carnatic mela #56, equivalent to ‘Darbari tivra Ma’ (or ‘Hemavati komal dha’). Despite its Southern popularity, it is still little-known in the North, with only a few Hindustani artists having explored it in any depth. Among these, Rampur-Sahaswan singer Hafeez Ahmed provides the most direct insight (see his full remarks below): “Shanmukhpriya is of a very devotional character – its name means ‘Goddess of Six Faces’. As regards interpreting the raga in Hindustani music, the scale doesn’t come under the purview of the so-called ‘ten thaats’…I think that it represents six ragas, one after another” – giving these ragas as Desi (SRgSRnS), Jaunpuri (nSRRndP), Darbari (PdnRS), Madhuvanti (gMPMgRS), Ramkali (MPdndP), & Bhairavi (PdnS). Also recorded by sitarist Balaram Pathak (who may have been the first to import the scale, sometime in the 1950s), as well as by Carnatic-born and Dagarvani-trained sarodiya K. Sridhar, who mined its odd contours to great effect at a 1986 concert in Stockholm (see transcription below). Compare to proximate ragas from the ‘32 thaat’ (=all possible 7-swara sampurna scales): e.g. Komal Ramkali (komal re instead), Rishabhapriya (shuddha Ga instead), and Simhendra Madhyamam (shuddha Ni instead).
–K. Sridhar (1986)–
• Raag Shiv Manjari •
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A captivating shadav raga created by my own sitar guru-ji Pandit Shivnath Mishra, resembling ‘Charukeshi no Pa’. The only known recording is a brief clip by his sarod student Pat Lambdin, filmed at a 2024 Vermont concert with Amit Kavthekar on fine tabla form (mukhda: dnSRG; GmGRS). [More info to follow…]. Compare to Imratkauns, the only known prakriti – and for more on my guru-ji’s life and sonic innovations, watch his Ahir Bhairav performance (filmed by the BBC aboard a Ganges riverboat) and read a brief bio article (“In a family of vocalists, he was the first to master the sitar…His lively, powerful, and unique style draws from the [musical traditions] of Benares…the gayaki of dhrupad, thumri, tappa, chaiti, hori, kajri, and dadra are all applied in his instrumentals…”). According to his son and disciple Deobrat Mishra, he has also created two other ragas – Ganga Ranjani and Atal Kalyan – neither of which seem to have been formally recorded yet either…
–Pat Lambdin (2024)–
• Raag Shivangi •
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A charming chatuswari, confined to the swaras SGPD throughout. Vocalist Shubhada Moghe, in the accompanying notes to her 2019 rendition, describes Shivangi as “a rare morning raga taught to me by my guru-ji Pt. Manikbua Thakurdas, whose lineage goes back seven generations…it is very close to Deshkar, but omits Re completely. The vadi-samvadi are Dha-Ga. This ‘swarantar’ raga got an overwhelming response when I performed it in Mumbai for Karnatak Sangha”. Her recording – the only one available – is built around a refrain of D(SD) PG, P(S)D P GPGP, with slight touches of tivra Ma and shuddha Ni included in the parallel ornament shapes P(MDPMP) and S(NRSNS). Aside from Shivangi, Thakurdas created at least two more four-swara ragas – Rasmadhuri (Srmd) and Vaishali Todi (Srgd) – as well as singing a range of other rare forms including Gorakhi, Kaumudi, Chandramani, & Supriya Todi. Also compare to other super-concise ragas such as Malashree (SGP: Shivangi minus Dha) and Bhavani (SRmD: Shivangi’s Pa-murchana) – as well as Kalavati (Shivangi plus komal ni). And to learn more about Manikbua Thakurdas, read Moghe’s recollections of her guru-ji (“A bastion of the Bhaskarbua Bakhle gayaki, he was probably the only guru to have a repertoire of more than 350 ragas…he inculcated the Bakhle gayaki, a fascinating blend of the Gwalior, Agra, and Jaipur gharanas; [learning] dhrupad, dhamar, khayal, and thumri in traditional and rare ragas…His teaching style was simple, methodical, and pure…”).
–Shubhada Moghe (2019)–
• Raag Shivanjali •
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Despite captivating millions of listeners, Shivanjali is known to the world through a single performance. Conceived by bansuri master Hariprasad Chaurasia as a tribute to his close friend and collaborator Shivkumar Sharma, its lone unveiling came at a whole-night Stuttgart concert in 1995, with Shiv-ji in the audience (‘Shiv-anjali’: ‘Reverences to Shivkumar’). Comments left by the upload’s 2.7m viewers demonstrate the raga’s emotional power: “Heavenly, incomparable, eternal, bringing you closer to God”; “Mesmerizing, serene, carrying us to the abode of Lord Shiva”; “Like flying without boundaries on unknown paths, embracing the force of powerful winds”; “The touch of coolness on a moonlit night…the silver shine of the full moon on a lake”; “If I could keep only my sight or my hearing then [I would usually choose] sight…Then I listen to this soul-touching music and I have conflicted views”; “I named my daughter Shivanjali after this track”. Hinting at various ragas including Malkauns (SndnS), Jogkauns (GmgS), Nandkauns (SGmdPmg), and Chandrakauns (gmdNS), Shivanjali also features unusual chromatic movements between adjacent swaras (SNn, mGg), with the komal shades sometimes being rendered much more softly than their preceding shuddha positions (…the word ‘komal’ derives from a Sanskrit term meaning ‘soft’). Shuddha Ga is often used as a melodic launchpoint, and the high shuddha Ni is used sparingly (it doesn’t appear for over 14 mins) – alongside other subtle features including a slight kan of shuddha Re when moving to komal ga (also mirrored a semitone above as (g)G). Shivanjali’s future is uncertain, with no indication that Hariprasad will ever perform or record it again – it may remain ‘frozen in time’, forever fixed in form to its single showcase almost 30 years ago. Also see Prabhateshwari (another Chaurasia creation) – and to learn more about Shivkumar Sharma’s life and santoor innovations, see Antardhwani, Rasikpriya, & Raga Quotes.
–Hariprasad Chaurasia (1995)–
• Raag Shivawanti •
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A barely-documented modern creation of sitar and surbahar legend Imrat Khan – kindly brought to my attention by his former student Chris Stephens via the Chandrakantha forum: “In regard to the ‘idiosyncratic’ Etawah ragas, here’s a video of [Khan] playing Shivawanti, which he described as a combination of Madhuvanti and Shivranjani. I captured this in 2007 in St. Louis, and it is likely the only recording of this raga…” (UPDATE: a track entitled ‘Solo Sitar’ on Khan’s 2008 album Yoga Music on Sitar and Veena is a studio take of Shivawanti: as confirmed by Stephens, who has since recorded his own gat cover). Seemingly unperformed by anyone else, the raga is prakriti (if Khan’s occasional flashes of komal ni are discounted) with Vijayanagari, a rare Carnatic import – as well as late vocalist Rashid Khan’s recently-created Priyaranjani (a different spin on the same ‘Madhuvanti + Shivranjani’ concept, which prefers slower tempos and shades of shuddha Ni).
–Imrat Khan (2007)–
• Raag Shivmat Bhairav •
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Shivmat Bhairav can be described as a blend of Bhairav, Bhairavi, and Todi, with the former being the most dominant over the sound (‘Bhairav double Ga/Ni’). Relatively rare in modern times, the raga brings out Bhairav via GmrS phrases and oscillations on the komal re – while also incorporating komal ga and ni in characteristic vakra movements (e.g. PdndP and rgrS). Maihar sitar and surbahar master Indrajit Banerjee generously got in touch in Oct 2023 to offer further insights on Shivmat Bhairav’s melodic blend: “the Todi and Bhairav chalan is not too difficult to bring in, but the Bhairavi part is discretionary: the beauty of the raga, as I see it, lies in the use of komal ni, applying the principle of avirbhav-tirobhav”. Said to have inspired Kumar Gandharva’s congruent Bihad Bhairav.
–Manjusha Patil (2019)–
• Raag Shivranjani •
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A spellbinding scale resembling ‘Bhupali komal ga’ (or ‘Kafi no ma/ni’), Shivranjani’s melodies, described by Kalakar as “plaintive, haunting”, are said to appease the destructive rage of Lord Shiva (also see Malkauns). Tanarang gives essential combinations including SRgP; PDPgR; gRgSR DS, although it may arrive in mishra form – rare for a pentatonic raga (e.g. the double-sitar jugalbandi below by my own gurus Shivnath & Deobrat Mishra: technically, a ‘mishra-Mishra’ rendition). Derived from the Carnatic Sivranjani – and generally more popular with instrumentalists than vocalists (although Lata Mangeshkar has set it in filmi). Also see my collaborator Jesse Bannister’s solo saxophone take, recorded in a highly resonant Cumbrian Cave.
–Shivnath & Deobrat Mishra (2013)–
• Raag Shobhawari •
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A rare ‘audav Asavari’ raga, matching the swaras of ‘komal Dha Durga’ (or ‘shuddha Re Gunakri’). While relatively free of specific melodic constraints, the dha assumes natural prominence due to its disbalancing effects: it is involved in the only hemitonic pairing (Pd) and also the widest adjacent jump (dS), while serving as the only detached swara. (n.b. a similar focus can also be observed in other members of the Shivranjani murchana set, e.g. the strength of re in Bairagi and ga in Shivranjani itself). Aslam Khan’s rendition features a komal ga vivadi, while Ronu Majumdar’s bansuri enchants with rapid movements which traverse the scale’s uneven geometries over the full saptak range. Also refer to a vivid tale from the invaluable RICMP channel: “My first teacher learnt music from multiple Ustads, including Aman Ali Khan of the Bhendibazaar gharana. He taught me numerous rare ragas, taals, and bandishes…However, he was an alcoholic, and often used to get severely intoxicated. Once, he attempted to commit suicide by drowning in the sea. After recovering, he came to my house to continue my training, while I was alone at home. It was evening twilight, and I was experiencing a strange feeling due to the silence. On that day, he taught me Shobhawari: I cannot forget the intensity of his performance…”.
–Aslam Khan (~2000s)–
• Raag Shree •
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According to Gwalior vocal master Omkarnath Thakur, Shree’s seven swaras are associated with those sunset hours when “disembodied spirits…become active, and aid in the black magic of Tantriks”. Tied to mythologies of Lord Shiva, the raga takes its name from ‘sri’, a sacred Sanskrit syllable which, in Vedic tradition, represents the material nature of humanity’s place in the universe (with ‘om’ signifying the spiritual dimension). As one of the oldest forms in the Hindustani pantheon, Shree is frequently depicted in classical ragmala paintings, also turning up in various scholarly texts throughout the centuries (from the Sangeetopanishad treatise, published in 1305: “Sri, with fair complexion, has eight hands and four faces. He carries a snare, a lotus, a book, a gourd, and the fruit of a citron tree. In two of his hands is a veena, and he is known for having a swan as his vehicle…”). Sitarist Vilayat Khan described it as “a raga of the warrior”, and vocalist Arun Bhaduri considers the mood to be “king-like…very strong”, explicitly associating its sound with visions of Shiva’s ‘trishul’ (trident-wielding) incarnation. Also see Shree-infused derivations such as Puriya Dhanashree, Shree Kalyan, Tankeshree, and the ‘evening form’ of Malavi – as well as the nearby Basant.
–Abhisek Lahiri (2015)–
• Raag Shree Kalyan •
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Congruent with the seven swaras of Puriya Kalyan (=Marwa thaat), Shree Kalyan is an enchanting product of Kumar Gandharva’s prolific imagination. The movements of his main rendition (Dekho Re Rut Phoolan Lagi) place Shree’s tritonal re-Pa sangati on stark display, with the bandish rendering Pa in curiously ‘clipped’ fashion (rSP), in contrast to the ornament-laden shuddha Dha above. Refer to renditions by Bhuvanesh Komkali, Madhup Mudgal, Abhirang (at a 2017 Gandharva memorial concert), and Ajay Dixit (dedicated to his guru Vijay Sadrdeshmukh) – as well as sitarists Balaram Pathak & Ashok Pathak. Also compare to other ‘Shree + Kalyan’ compounds such as Jaitashree and Dhavalshree (said by some to be the ‘Maihar Shree Kalyan’). Also prakriti with Baradi.
–Bhuvanesh Komkali (2016)–
• Raag Shrutivardhini •
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A rare hexatonic raga which instantly gripped my ears as a match for the Western ‘Blues Scale’ (SgmMPnS) when I came across a mellifluous rendition by sarangi master Abdul Latif Khan – who regularly utilises distinctly bluesy double-Ma phrases such as nSgmM, PMmgS (as per his student Nicolas Magriel: “His bandish is somewhat reminiscent of the Pink Panther theme”). Further research suggested that the raga was introduced by Dagarvani vocalists Zia Fariduddin Dagar and Ritwik Sanyal, although I’ve struggled to unearth much detail on their process of inspiration – despite the raga’s seemingly transglobal elements, it is unclear if its creators actually had the blues in mind while devising it. After all, Shrutivardhini differs from the American blues idiom in several notable ways: with many artists omitting shuddha ma in ascent, and most allowing tivra Ma to function as an independent swara (compared to its more ornamental role in the blues, where it is often hinted at via subtle upward bends from ma). Also recorded by Abdul Latif Khan’s son Farooque Lateef Khan and grandson Sarwar Hussain Khan (lehra transcribed below), as well as by Dhrupadyas Nirmalya Dey, Seuli Chakraborty, and Suvir Misra (who uses his rudra veena’s wide meend capabilities to summon the sounds of a slide guitar). The same SgmMPnS scale – a Ma-murchana of Marwa – has also been performed by Rahul Bhatt under the name ‘Madhusurawali’, said to be a creation of his father Balwantrai Bhatt ‘Bhavrang’. Compare to its ‘single-ma’ cousins Dhani (only ma) and Madhukauns (only Ma), as well as to other blues-inclined ragas such as Jog (which outlines a 7#9 ‘Hendrix’ chord) and Kalavati (which matches the classic SGPDn ‘boogie-woogie bassline’).
–Sarwar Hussain Khan (2023)–
• Raag Shuddha Basant •
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Typically considered the modern successor to the ‘original’ form of Basant – with Maihar musicians such as Nikhil Banerjee and Nityanand Haldipur considering it inseparable from Adi Basant (‘shuddha’, as well as referring to ‘pure’ or ‘unaltered’ swaras, may also indicate ‘primary’ or ‘original’: similar to the meaning of ‘adi’). Generally, it differs from the ‘main’ Basant in taking a shuddha Dha (placing it in line with Marwa thaat), although Dhrupad artists may omit Pa, and others may include touches of shuddha ma in avroh amongst other disparate quirks (some link it to Lalit, Hemant, and Bhinna Shadja). Also refer to renditions by sitarist Kushal Das, sarodiya Amjad Ali Khan, and bansuriyas Pannalal Ghosh and Hariprasad Chaurasia – and compare to the similarly-ancient Pancham, as well as other Basant variants such as Malti Basant, Gauri Basant, and Dakshinatya Basant.
–Kushal Das (2014)–
• Raag Shuddha Kalyan •
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A popular early night raga, Shuddha Kalyan ascends with the same 5 swaras as Bhupali (SRGPDS), and descends with the full 7 of Yaman (SNDPMGRS), leading some to title it ‘Bhoop-Kalyan’. Phrases tend to end on the poorvang-slanted Sa, Re, Ga, or Pa – and both the ‘avroh-only’ swaras (Ni & Ma) must be treated subtly throughout – in the words of Senia-Shahjahanpur sarodiya Radhika Mohan Maitra, “Ni and Ma are ‘astamita’: like rays of the setting sun, which has already sunken below the horizon…”. Listen to a lively (and remarkably well-recorded) 1935 rendition by Abdul Karim Khan, as well as the fantastically-filmed 1987 performance by Bhimsen Joshi below.
–Pandit Jasraj (1989)–
• Raag Shuddha Malhar •
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Perhaps the oldest surviving Malhar raga (‘shuddha’, as well as referring to ‘pure’ or ‘unaltered’ specific swaras, may also indicate a ‘primary’ or ‘original’ quality: as with the similarly-ancient Shuddha Basant), marked by “a ponderous gait and a meend-rich contour”. As per the accompanying notes to a K.G. Ginde lecture, Shuddha Malhar is distinguished from its prakritis Durga and Jaldhar Kedar through the ucharana of its m(m)R; (m)RP kernel, as well as uttarang motions of mP(S)DS, SDPm (although Ginde considers all three to share a ma-Sa vadi-samvadi, plus Pa as a further nyas). Also refer to Lalith J. Rao’s energetic demo, and a summary of insights gleaned from lakshanagranthas – and compare to other ancient Malhars including Gaud Malhar, Arun Malhar, & Ramdasi Malhar.
–Lalith J. Rao (1994)–
• Raag Shuddha Sarang •
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A prominent early afternoon raga of the Sarang family, often said to evoke sringara. Ga is omitted, Dha is ornamental, and shuddha ma is introduced in avroh (always before Re, and sometimes adjacent to the tivra, e.g. MmR) – with Tanarang giving a pakad of NDSNRS (n.b. older variants of the raga also employed komal ni: used similarly as ‘tivra Dha’ in S. Balachander’s Dhrupad-Carnatic rework). Despite its current-day fame, beloved by instrumentalists and vocalists alike, Bhatkhande noted that only a few artists of his era played it (~a century ago) – although the Sarang lineage itself stretches back much further, finding mention in Ramamatya’s 1550 Swaramela Kalanidhi and turning up in assorted ragmala paintings (either as a son of Shree or a ragini of Malkauns). Also refer to Bor’s bandish translation (“While I was swinging, a snake bit the tip of my finger…”), and an incredible rendition by Budhaditya Mukherjee – as well as Shyam Kalyan (the same scale plus Ga). Multi-instrumentalist Eric O’Daly recommends a fine pair of vocal renditions: “Padma Talwalkar’s is beautiful, and Pran Nath’s is hypnotic and incredible”.
–Debashish Bhattacharya (2013)–
• Raag Shukla Bilawal •
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A traditional Bilawal prakar, marked out by phrase patterns such as SGGm, GmPm and a general focus on shuddha ma, also integrating movements from the Malhar, Kedar, and Khamaj families. Jaipur-Atrauli vocalist Manjiri Asanare-Kelkar’s detailed demo breakdown describes it as “a complex raga, with major phrases of Gaud Malhar [e.g. GGm; mRRP, mPDPGPm; GGm; mPmG, GGm; R(R)mP] and Bihagda [e.g. PDPm; GmP; DPmGm] blended with certain [Alhaiya] Bilawal elements [e.g. PNSNDNS; SDnDP; GmGRS; NDNSGS]”. Also refer to renditions from Jaipur-Atrauli pair Kesarbai Kerkar (1949) and Mogubai Kurdikar (1950), as well as by sarodiya and statistician Kalyan Mukherjea – and a Dhrupad-Carnatic take by beenkar S. Balachander (“the beauty lies in the vakra use of komal ni”).
–Manjiri Asnare-Kelkar (2016)–
• Raag Shyam Kalyan •
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Shyam Kalyan (‘Evening Kalyan’) is a prachalit Kalyan variant. Ga is used sparingly in ascent, and typically skipped in phrases which run through the scale sequentially, and shuddha ma is taken in descent only – while Re is emphasised throughout, and Pa is available as a resting note. As per Tanarang’s summary, the raga is “a very melodious mixture of Kalyan and Kamod…one should render RMPNS rather than GMPNS, and Ni can sometimes be skipped in avroh”. It bears some resemblance to Shuddha Sarang, while being distinguished by the use of Ga in characteristic vakra phrases such as MPGmR and GmPGmR. Refer to an excellent Darbar rendition by Anupama Bhagwat (jor transcribed below).
–Anupama Bhagwat (2013)–
• Raag Simhendra Madhyamam •
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Borrowed from a South Indian ragam (melakarta scale #57), Simhendra Madhyamam takes the form of ‘Kirwani tivra Ma’, ‘Todi shuddha re’, or ‘Madhuvanti komal dha’. Despite the broad popularity of its Carnatic congruent (hailed by Charulatha Mani as “regal, meditative, bold, and striking”), the raga remains rare in the North – with its phraseological norms and guidelines left correspondingly uncodified (although Re assumes prominence as a nyas in most recordings). Also featured in my ‘expanded thaat list’ of 32 sampurna scales – and known as the ‘Hungarian Minor’ due to its use in various folk traditions of Eastern Europe, the Mediterranean, and beyond. Seemingly introduced to the Northern ragascape by Ravi Shankar, with his most prominent recording being from the 1956 Three Ragas album (as pointed out by Chris Stephens, the great sitarist also used it on his soundtrack for the 1966 Chappaqua film: a cult classic featuring cameos from William S. Burroughs, Allen Ginsberg, Moondog, Ornette Coleman, and Swami Satchidananda). Also see Shankar’s other Carnatic imports, including Charukeshi, Vachaspati, Kirwani, & Malay Marutam.
–Ravi Shankar (1956)–
• Raag Sindhura •
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A Kafi ally with corresponding light-classical popularity, marked out by the explicit use of double-Ni and the frequent omission of ga in aroha. Described by Tanarang as “a light flittering melody…best suited for thumri, tappa, and hori” – while Parrikar notes that “the approach to Sa takes two pathways: one drops Ni as in mPDS, the other adopts the shuddha Ni-laden strip mPN, NS. The ga becomes deergha on occasion…[and] a judicious elongation of Dha can be put to good effect” (which, along with a mgRS resolution, can suggest shades of Bageshri). The raga’s roots (presumably linked to Pakistan’s Sindh province) are ancient, with the ancestral ‘Saindhavi’ finding mention in Sarngadeva’s 13th-century Sangita Ratnakara (‘Ocean of Music and Dance’) as a ‘desi’ form. Also hear an astonishing 1930s violin rendition by Allauddin Khan (later reworked by Ravi Shankar, and also by Mehdi Hasan in a celebrated ghazal) – as well as the numerous prakritis listed below.
–Ravi Shankar (1991)–
• Raag Sohini •
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Sharing its six swaras with Marwa and Puriya, Sohini aims for a looser, more sprightly flavour to these more famous congruents – focusing on agile movements in madhya and taar saptaks, and uttarang-based phrases built on a strong Dha-Ga sangati. Re is banned in aroha, and Sa assumes greater strength than in Marwa, while madhya saptak Ga serves as the low scale-bound for most melodic activity. For Tanarang, Sohini evokes “a pleasingly moist atmosphere…late in the night before dawn” (whereas Rajan Parrikar calls it, “an instant pleaser: much like that buxom leotard-wrapped babe at your local gym…by way of comparison, think of Marwa as your mother-in-law: solid, ponderous, and unfunny”). Also see Deepak Raja’s superb piece Marwa, Puriya, Sohini: The Tricky Triplets (“The true test of differentiation would be [to] perform them one after the other. In living memory, only Bade Ghulam Ali Khan and Vilayat Khan…have performed this feat…”).
–Roopa Panesar (2021)–
• Raag Sohini Pancham •
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A variant of Sohini, named for its insertion of shuddha ma and Pa via phrases from Pancham including MGMGrS; MPGmG; MDMmG [n.b. many other raga names involving ‘Pancham’ indicate the inclusion of the swara position rather than the raga, e.g. ‘Pancham Malkauns’]. Refer to renditions by Madhup Mudgal and Nisha Nigalye-Parasnis (singing a Pranpriya bandish), as well as a concert by Mahesh Kale which places it in direct conjunction with the ‘regular’ Sohini. The raga’s historical path remains unclear – although, as per Daniel Neuman’s intriguing paper Pedagogy, Practice, & Embodied Creativity in Hindustani Music, Vilayat Hussain Khan recounts that “in earlier days they used to use shuddha ma in Sohini” (read the full tale: “In my quest for the new cheez and new Ustads, I found [Chotte Khan] in Budaun…He was a very old man…That’s where I learned this Pancham Sohini, but he didn’t know the name of the raga. He just told me it was ‘a kind of Sohini’…Vilayat Hussain Khan [said it] was Pancham Sohini”). Prakriti with Lalit Pancham, Shuddha Basant, Bhankari, and Bhatiyar.
–Nisha Nigalye-Parasnis (1990)–
• Raag Sonakshi •
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From my 2018 Darbar interview with Maihar bansuri maestro Rupak Kulkarni: “I created Sonakshi [‘Golden-Eyed’] so I could experience a raga which was suitable for any time of day. I believe we have different mindsets depending on the hour: in the morning our mood is spiritual and fresh, and in the evening it is has more longing, and perhaps tiredness too. So, to mix these emotions up, I took a few phrases from Lalit and Bhairav [dawn] and blended them with those from Marwa [sunset]”. His new raga – which thus bridges both sandhiprakash – seems to have gone unrecorded (…as far as I can tell: the search is somewhat complicated by the fact that Sonakshi is also the name of Kulkarni’s supremely fun fusion group).
–Rupak Kulkarni (1999)–
• Raag Sorath •
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A Khamaj-flavoured night raga which enjoys perennial popularity in Sikh traditions: as per Jawaddi Taksal, Sorath is “a simple and sweet raga: but it will be appealing only when the soul seeks the Lord’s name. By singing glorious praises, lifelessness does not come” – and, in the words of another Sikh writer: “Sorath conveys the feeling of having such strong belief in something that you want to keep repeating the experience….this feeling of certainty is so strong that you become the belief”). Movements lie close to the prakriti Desh, with the main distinctions being a weaker treatment of Ga and a stronger Re-Pa sangati – refer to renditions by Bundu Khan, Munawar Ali Khan, Kumar Gandharva (singing a Tulsidas bhajan), and Bhai Gurmeet Singh Shant (“That man who in the midst of pain does not feel suffering; Who is not affected by pleasure or fear, and looks alike among dust and gold; Who is not swayed by either slander or praise; Nor affected by greed, pride, or attachment…”) – as well as a Faiyaz Hussain Khan bandish written in praise of the Maharaja of Mysore, who had just awarded him the title ‘Sun of Music’. The name ‘Sorath’ is said to derive from Gujarat’s Saurashtra region (also see Saurashtra Bhairav and the Carnatic Surati).
–Gurmeet Singh Shant (2021)–
• Raag Sughrai •
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An afternoon raga of the Kanada family, Sughrai shares significant historic and melodic overlap with Suha (the two are sometimes fused as ‘Suha-Sughrai’) – with Mewati vocalist Aarshin Karande describing it as “a ‘higher-shruti’ version of the more popular Suha” and “an ancient compound of Sarang and Malhar, featured prominently in Haveli Sangeet”. Shuddha Dha is optional, and Pa is a prominent nyas, set amidst other ideas drawn from Adana and beyond. Rajan Parrikar – who considers the raga’s definitive phrase to be nnP, mRS, Rmg – recommends a trio of classic bandish by Bhatkhande, Pranpriya and Rasrang (the latter of which is marked by “free-wheeling linear sorties of NSRmP, NSRS, NPmRSRg”). Also see the related Nayaki Kanada, as well as the numerous prakritis listed below.
–Arun Kashalkar (2016)–
• Raag Suha •
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Suha is an afternoon Kanada raga which draws inspiration from Darbari, Megh, and Sarang, while also sharing significant overlap with the prakriti Nayaki Kanada and Gaudgiri Malhar (also see the overlapping Sughrai, and their hybrid ‘Suha-Sughrai’). Information regarding the raga’s melodic movements is scant: Ocean of Ragas gives a vadi-samvadi of ma-Sa, noting that komal dha may sometimes appear in the descent (somewhat mirroring shuddha Dha’s optional status in Sughrai), with the Kanada-ang presented via m\g meend and gmRS conclusion phrases. Rajan Parrikar recommends renditions by Mushtaq Hussain (“adopts the RmRP cluster on the mukhda…and an avirbhav of Sarang”), Latafat Hussain Khan (“deviates from the canonical Suha [via] SRmg”), and Kishori Amonkar (“a strong ma is suggested, although never quite realised…”). Also see Suha Todi.
–Manilal Nag (1985)–
• Raag Suha Todi •
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A jod raga primarily associated with (and probably invented by) Ali Akbar Khan. As per the liner notes to his 1978 album rendition with Swapan Chaudhury: “Suha is a time-tested traditional raga, and so is Todi…[however] their combination, though happily feasible, is not commonly heard…[Suha’s] Kanada trend blended with a raga of the morning [Todi] creates a sublime sentiment that captures and emotionally susceptible mind…taans abound in syncopating patterns”. The resulting scale (an exact murchana of Miyan ki Malhar) appears to have no prakritis, placing Dha in a position of natural prominence as the only shuddha chal and only ‘detached’ swara – with the komal dha barely featuring at all. In more recent years, Kirana vocalist Moumita Mitra has made it part of her repertoire, emphasising the Sa-ga sangati and generally limiting komal re to concluding lines (“a self-composed drut ektal bandish with lyrics from [Bhatkhande’s] Kramik Pustak Malika Bhairav: Moumadi Moumadi Japat Hu Rain Din”). Not to be confused with Suhani Todi (a rare audav raga) – and also see other Khansaab creations including Chandranandan, Gaurimanjari, Malayalam, and Medhavi.
–Ali Akbar Khan (1978)–
• Raag Sundarkali •
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A relatively straightforward audav raga, Sundarkali takes the swaras of ‘Ahir Bhairav no ma/dha’ (n.b. the same name is also used separately as an alternate title for ‘Paraj Bhairav’). Anjani Kumar Gupta’s concise bansuri rendition is the only full recording I could find (alap transcribed below), although Tanarang’s disciple Prakash Vishwanath Ringe has released a brief selection of khayal demos (and sax player Mister D Cell has used it to create ambient music). Its SrGPnS swara set (equivalent to ‘Bairagi Todi with shuddha Ga’) brings perpetual melodic tension – as one of only 6 scales in the current Index to possess the property of ‘fragmentation’ (i.e. at least half its swaras are ‘detached’, with no swaras 7 semitones above or below: in Sundarkali’s case, re/Ga/ni). Not to be confused with Sundarkauns – and compare to Malay Marutam (the same scale plus shuddha Dha).
–Anjani Kumar Gupta (2022)–
• Raag Sundarkauns •
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Taking the shape of ‘Malkauns shuddha Dha’, Sundarkauns’ swara set has, as per Tanarang, been unjustly sidelined by previous generations, who have tended to interpret it as just a ‘Bageshri-ang Chandrakauns’ (“A misnomer…this raga has neither a shuddha Ni indicating Chandrakauns, nor an avroh like Bageshri”: n.b. see ‘Purana Chandrakauns’ for this prakriti). The renowned Gwalior vocalist described his revival of this intriguing audav form as “straightforward, and can be expanded freely in all three octaves” – with Abhirang’s rendition highlighting the mDS major triad via nyas. Also see Harikauns (the same scale with tivra Ma), as well as other Tanarang-related ragas including Hemshri, Saraswati Kedar, and Jogeshwari Pancham.
–Abhijith Shenoy ‘Abhirang’ (2020)–
• Raag Surdasi Malhar •
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A combination of melodies from the Malhar and Sarang ragangas, said to have been created by Saint Surdas: a blind 16th-century poet-musician renowned for his evocations of Krishna amidst themes of shringara and bhakti. The raga which bears his name is described by Tanarang as “uttarang-pradhan, with general movement around taar Sa…[lyrics] are dominated by descriptions of clouds, thunder, and lightning…in comparison to other Malhar forms, this raga is less deep…”). Ocean of Ragas advises that “shuddha Dha is used in avroh in a peculiar fashion, as [SnDmP; PnDP]”, also pointing to the influence of Sorath – and noting two additional variants (“one without Dha, and another with komal ga, favoured by Dhrupadyas”). Sitarist Srinivas Reddy recently recommended me an outstanding 1984 rendition by Nikhil Banerjee (“the drut gat is so powerful and triumphant…”).
–Venkatesh Kumar (2016)–
• Raag Swanandi •
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Fashioned by Agra vocalist Jagannathbuwa Purohit ‘Gunidas’ (also the creator of Jogkauns and Jaun Bhairav), fusing material from Bhatiyar, Bihag, and Bhinna Shadja into an engrossing new whole. Bhatiyar forms the main base, with its phrases being reworked to match the swaras of Bilawal thaat (e.g. PGRS; SD NDP, PDPm), with Bhinna Shadja contributing phrases such as GmNDm; (N)DNSm, and Bihag appearing via GmPNS; GmG(R)S. Swarganga describes Swanandi as “a very serene, soothing melody…a complex, vakra structure”, also pointing towards Hemant and Nand for melodic similarities. Kept alive through the efforts of Gunidas’ students C.R. Vyas and Jitendra Abhiskehi, as well as others including Shivanand Patil and Vijay Koparkar. Also compare Hem Bihag, a creation of Allauddin Khan which blends similar source materials into a distinct set of moods.
–V.R. Athavale (1992)–
• Raag Tankeshree •
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Tankeshree is a seldom-performed Shree-ang raga, which lies closest to the predominant form of Triveni (the same scale minus Ma). Pa is strong and tivra Ma is weak – at least based on the evidence of Omkarnath Thakur’s soaring 1940 rendition (Malan Laaye Chun Chun Kaliyan), which regularly ascends in sparse SGP fashion (also see Malashree and Kalavati). Vanishingly few others have recorded the raga, however it seems to be the same form as ‘Shree Tank’ (although the derivation of these names is unclear) – with Subbha Rao’s Raga Nidhi Vol. 4, which links it to Puriya Dhanashree, noting that “There are three types of Shree Tanki: shadav-sampurna [no Ma in aroha], audav-sampurna [no Ma and Ni in aroha], and audav-shadav [also omitting Ma in avroh]”. Also prakriti with Basant and Jaitashree.
–Omkarnath Thakur (~1960s)–
• Raag Tanseni Madhuvanti •
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A captivating offshoot of Madhuvanti, named ‘Tanseni’ for its use of a Miyan ki Malhar-flavoured double-Ni sangati. Associated with the Rampur sarangi tradition, most prominently Hamid & Zahid Khan – as per the liner notes to Hamid’s ektal rendition: “it also resembles Multani…it is of Kafi parentage, with accents on Sa & Ma”. Thus far, this LP is the only rendition of theirs I can definitively trace (and I’m still not sure when it was released: although given Madhuvanti’s recent origins, first appearing around the 1940s, it could be that they devised their own ‘Tanseni’ variant soon afterwards). Bhimsen Joshi also sung some form of ‘Madhuvanti + Malharic nDNS‘ at a 1980 Pune concert, also titled ‘Tanseni Madhuvanti’ (Kahe Maan Karo) – although it is unclear whether this shares any direct links to the Khans’ interpretation above. Furthermore, several other ragas have also taken up the general ‘Madhuvanti + Malhar’ concept, such as Abhirang’s Madhu Malhar and Ali Akbar Khan’s Madhu Malati (Ni up, ni down) – with other ultra-rare prakritis to the SRgMPDnNS swara-set including Tukhari, Adbhut Ranjani, Saraswati Ranjani, and Vidyapati Kalyan. Ripe for resurrection!
–Bhimsen Joshi (1980)–
• Raag Tilak Bhairav •
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An ultra-rare raga associated with Imdadkhani composer Dhruva Tara Joshi, spanning the full swara sets of Bhairav and Tilak Kamod. Although initially a sitarist, Joshi’s sole traceable take of the raga is a vocal-only rendition from a lecture-demo (seemingly the result of an injury forcing him away from the strings) – which concisely interweaves phrases from both parent ragas, combining them into a highly distinctive whole. Shuddha Re and Dha are vital to the ascent path, and komal re is typically confined to concluding lines (e.g. SGmPm; G\rS). Aside from this single rendition, virtually the only other ‘Tilak Bhairav’ mention I can find is from Dard Neuman’s excellent 2012 paper Pedagogy, Practice, and Embodied Creativity in Hindustani Music (“The cases of Tilak Bhairav and Sohini Pancham are instructive…Joshi knows these ragas separately, but is able to identify them [in isolation] only after the names are presented”) – although Akashvani Vol. 38 notes that Agra vocalist Aparna Chakraborty performed the raga for Calcutta A.I.R. on 7th Oct 1973. Further information welcome – and, in the meantime, you can learn more about Joshi via his own unfinished memoirs (“I fell in love with music after listening to Ustad Enayat Khan’s sitar recital for the first time in Lucknow. I decided then and there that I would learn from this legendary musician…”).
–Dhruv Tara Joshi (~1960s)–
• Raag Tilak Kamod •
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Mirroring the tones of the Western Major Scale, Tilak Kamod’s seven swaras offer robust melodic flexibility across a range of sentiments (“heroic courage, philosophic poise, devotional contentment, suggestive eroticism…”). Some trace the raga’s origin to Pyar Khan, a rabab-playing descendent of Tansen via his son Bilas Khan, who is said to have picked it up from a melody sung by an Uttar Pradesh village woman as she was grinding corn. Prakriti with numerous ragas, including Bilawal, Bihari, Swanandi, & many more – although its phraseologies are distinct (as per Ashok da Ranade, “Tilak Kamod has a structure of intricate upward-downward phrases [e.g. PNSRGS; SPDmG; SRGSN], asking to be explored across all three saptak, which certainly makes intellectual and expressive demands on an artist…”).
–Anupama Bhagwat (2019)–
• Raag Tilak Malhar •
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A presumed blend of Miyan ki Malhar and Tilak Kamod, mentioned in Geeta Banerjee’s Malhar Darshan but only recorded by a few artists. After struggling to ascertain the raga’s origins, I was pleased to receive a direct message from guitarist Akshat Sharma in early 2024, informing me that it was devised by his grandfather Gopal Krishnan, the late great vichitra veena maestro (also the creator of Saraswati Sarang) – whose well-filmed rendition revolves around a refrain of RmPDGm, GR(N)S. Ramrang’s take showcases the Malhar family’s mid-scale mRP phrase, whereas Kishori Amonkar gives more weight to its nDNS turnaround (n.b. it is unknown whether her self-composed ‘Tilak Malhar’ bandish is directly linked to Krishnan’s original invention). Also see Tilak Bhairav, as well as more ‘shuddha Ga Malhar’ ragas including Des Malhar, Gaud Malhar, and Arun Malhar.
–Ramashreya Jha ‘Ramrang’ (2007)–
• Raag Tilang •
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A folk-derived Khamaj raga featuring distinctive double-Ni interplay, seemingly of ancient Southern origin (Bor: “Tilang probably originated in Telangana, and may have been introduced to the North by an unknown 15th-to-16th-century poet-composer“). Dha is varjit, and shuddha Re is typically omitted too (although some may occasionally include it swara in taar saptak). Parrikar suggests definitive phrases focused on the mid-scale Ga-Ni space (GnPnPnGS; GnPNSnPGnG), with renditions often arriving adorned with various mishra flourishes – also learn more in Moumita Mitra’s quick vocal demo. Remains firmly popular amongst vocalists and instrumentalists alike, and has also been re-adopted into Carnatic music in recent generations [n.b. On a personal note: I’ll never forget first discovering Ravi Shankar’s landmark 1967 collaboration album with violinist Yehudi Menuhin (East Meets West), borrowed from a local library CD aged 14 – featuring an energetic Mishra Tilang arrangement (‘Swara-Kakali’), later reworked by their respective students Gaurav Majumdar & Daniel Hope as part of the very first raga concert I ever witnessed – thus helping set me on the path which led me to move to Benares, and eventually to the creation of this project…]
–Shahid Parvez Khan (2020)–
• Raag Tilang Bahar •
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A sparsely-recorded form which uses all the swaras of both Tilang and Bahar, appraised by Tanarang as “a fine blend of the two melodies…both [ragas] provide sweet tonal embellishment” (who gives characteristic phrases of GmPm; GmRS; mDNS; DNSRS; SnPmG; mPm; DNSnP; GmRS). Kirana singer R.D. Jadhav’s performance (described on the cover as a “bright and brisk rendition”) focuses on the Malharic uttarang zone around the double-Ni, while B.S. Narang’s uptempo take also includes mishra touches. Aside from another cut by Azam Bai, further recordings are hard to trace (although you can check out a pitch-graph of some brief Bai melodies).
–B.S. Narang (~2000s)–
• Raag Tivrakauns •
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A novel experiment by rare raga connoisseur Abhirang, formed by changing Malkauns’ shuddha ma vadi to its tivra variant. This shift renders both Sa and Ma ‘detached’ (i.e. with no swaras either 7 semitones above or below them: a property shared by only Harikauns and Sehera), meaning that conclusive resolutions towards the raga’s two most prominent swaras are hard to conjure. This brings a sharp disbalance to all melodic motions, as even the more ‘classic’ Malkauns phrases (e.g. ndnS) are fundamentally recoloured by the lack of stable home ground. Abhirang, who includes the tivra Ma in his tanpura tuning, tends to accentuate the komal ga with ornaments from above (e.g. M\g; (dM)g), manipulating the raga’s tension profile via the extent of Ma’s usage as a melodic endpoint. I contacted him to ask more: his explanation links it to Mangal Gujari (the same scale plus komal re), as well as a congruent Carnatic form called ‘Karmapu’ (which I can’t yet trace in the wild) – giving vadi-samvadi options of ga-ni or dha-ga, and noting nyas of Sa, ga, & dha amidst a general poorvang-dominance. The raga appears to have no murchanas, hinting at a high degree of general geometric isolation (…although if you interpret the swara wheel’s specific positions as if they were the vibhags of a tala cycle, i.e. ‘3-3-2-2-2’, you get the ultra-rotatable ‘bulerias’ pattern of Spanish flamenco). Ripe for further exploration by those who seek fresh melodic challenge [Update: After I posted this page on the Chandrakantha forum in Sep 2023, Xavi Ganjam recorded the raga on mohan veena! Keep the experiments rolling in…]
–Abhijith Shenoy ‘Abhirang’ (2022)–
• Raag Todi •
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Pivotal to Hindustani history, Todi overflows with musical ideas found nowhere else on the planet. Some link its ambiguous geometries with ‘existential anguish and unsettlement’, while others hear ‘the playfulness of a newborn, content and smiling’. Rajan Parrikar hails it as “the most profound, finespun idea in melodic music…from ecstasy, to frolic, to pathos, to melancholy, every conceivable human emotion is refracted through the Todi prism…”. Some title the raga ‘Darbari Todi’ or ‘Miyan ki Todi’, in reference to Miyan Tansen, the legendary composer of Emperor Akbar’s 16th-century durbar – although its actual historical path is mysterious (for one thing, the ‘Todi’ of Tansen’s era may well have taken the swaras of today’s Bhairavi: hence the Carnatic ‘Hanumatodi’). Prakriti with Multani, although the phraseologies of the ragas are distinct, and Todi’s komal ga is typically tuned to an idiosyncratic ati-komal shade, highlighted in concluding phrases such as NdMg; rgrS. Also compare to a multitude of other Todi-infused forms, including Gujiri Todi (the same scale minus Pa), Bhupali Todi (minus Ma and Ni), and Khat Todi (double Ma and Ni).
–Indrani Mukherjee (2019)–
• Raag Triveni •
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Taking a hexatonic ‘Shree/Bhairav no ma’ swara set, Triveni’s main incarnation (also known as ‘Tirban/Tirvan’) comprises two congruent swara-clusters – SrG & PdN (both semitonal jumps of ‘1-3’). Melodic motions mostly take after Shree and Bhairav, particularly via a strong re-Pa sangati and G\rS descents – both evident in Shounak Abhisheki’s jhaptal bandish (Kalindi Saraswati, transcribed below: and described in the liner notes as an “extremely difficult raga”). The basic scale shape is also describable as ‘Bibhas plus shuddha Ni’ or ‘Din ki Puriya Pa-for-Ma’. While Chris Stephens recommends the renditions of underheralded sitar and vichitra veena master Mohammad Sharif Khan Poonchwale (“featuring some really unique gamaka taans of the Poonch gharana”). Also note that the term ‘Triveni’ – which translates as ‘Confluence of Three Rivers’ – may also indicate the general concept of ‘combining three ragas’: see below for examples.
–Shounak Abhisheki (2000)–
• Raag Tulsikauns •
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A barely-recorded creation of Maihar sitarist Kartik Kumar, matching the swara-set of ‘Malkauns double-Ni’ (or ‘Malkauns + Chandrakauns’). A consistently strong ma-murchana summons unmistakable flavours of the Western ‘Blues Scale’ (SgmMPnS), further accentuated by extended meend between the consecutive Ni positions (…I’ve used the exact same scale as a ‘modal sitar hack’ to play with Open G-tuned blues guitarists: and sitarists such as Rais Khan were directly experimenting with the blues scale as early as 1976). Seemingly unperformed by anyone outside the Kumar family, although Kartik once recorded an astonishing surbahar-pakhawaj rendition rendition, and his son Niladri has played it live and on a 2010 album (also see their duet below). The word ‘Tulsi’ refers to the ‘holy basil’ plant (ocimum tenuiflorum), renowned as an ayurvedic ingredient and used as an aromatic ‘blessed leaf’ in Hindu temple ceremonies, dedicated to the goddess Tulasi (an avatar of Lakshmi). Pleasingly, the raga forms an exact murchana of Marwa (from shuddha Ni). Also listen to Kumar’s recording of ‘Chandramukhi’, a prakriti form which to me sounds indistinguishable from Tulsikauns (indeed, the relationship between the ragas is unclear: perhaps a mistitling is at play…).
–Karthik & Niladri Kumar (1980s)–
• Raag Vachaspati •
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Vachaspati (‘Lord of Speech’) is a recent import from the South, adapted from Carnatic music’s 64th melakarta scale around the mid-20th century by artists including Ravi Shankar and Ali Akbar Khan. Consequently, its Northern form is still in a state of flux, with few firm melodic conventions aside from staying within the scale’s bounds – which, despite containing a stable major triad (SGP), are sharply coloured by the curious dissonance of the rare ‘tivra Ma + komal Ni’ sangati. Most closely resembles either ‘Yaman komal ni’ or ‘Khamaj tivra Ma’, although its phraseologies have no explicit ties to either of these ragas – with the swara set also approximating overtones 8-14 of the harmonic series: the foundational constituents of all resonant sound. Also see Saraswati (the same scale minus Ga, linked to the Carnatic original) and Hemavati (a ‘komal ga Vachaspati’ of similar Southern import). Also see Shankar’s other Carnatic reworkings, notably including Charukeshi, Kirwani, Malay Marutam, and Simhendra Madhyamam.
–Jesse Bannister (2020)–
• Raag Vardhini •
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Adapted from Carnatic music’s 32nd melakarta scale (‘Ragavardhini’: strictly speaking, the Northern form should perhaps be spelled this way too), Vardhini matches the swaras of Nandkauns or ‘Jogkauns komal ni’. Seemingly introduced to the Northern ragascape via the Dagarvani Dhrupad – as per information kindly supplied by Pelva Naik, “Vardhini came into the Dagar gharana, as far as I am aware, when Ustad Zia Mohiuddin Dagar played it on his rudra veena in the 1980s and 1990s”. A recording from Zia’s 1986 Seattle show features a strong Sa-ma sangati, with subtle, shifting modifications to the komal ga sruti (technically a ‘tivra Re’ in the Carnatic system). The best modern rendition is undoubtedly Bahauddin Dagar & Pelva Naik‘s colourful duet at Darbar 2018, with each performer teasing different tensions from the double-Ga (as per one listener, “This took me back to 1967, as a 4-year-old child: Zia Fariduddin & Mohiuddin Dagar used to enjoy my moving hands and shaking feet [during] their divine performances at the Narayanswami School…”). Also recorded by other Dagarvani exponents including Ritwik Sanyal and Uday Bhawalkar – as well as (seemingly) forming the foundations for a Marathi folk song by Hridaynath Mangeshkar & Asha Bhosle.
–Bahauddin Dagar & Pelva Naik (2018)–
• Raag Vihang •
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Vihang (Sanskrit for ‘Bird’) is a complex double-Ma form, most prevalent among Jaipur-Atrauli gharana vocalists. Manjiri Asanare-Kelkar’s detailed demo casts it as a ‘phrase-based’ raga, combining a Bihag core (NNDPMG, GmG, P(M)G GmG, NDPM, GmG) with melodies from Purva (DMPGmGrG, mGrG, DMP, GmGrG), Jait Kalyan (SSGGP, SS(NS)GGP), and Puriya (P(MP)MDS, SNrS, SNrNDrND, N(DN)P), alongside ‘connecting phrases’ such as MDMG, rS – also linking it Marwa and Puriya Kalyan. Tabla scholar Aneesh Pradhan recommends the renditions of Mallikarjun Mansur, which set soaring uttarang movements against Ma-mixing swoops back down towards low Sa (read more of Pradhan’s avian-themed raga writings – and also refer to recent research on the musical capabilities of birds: “In their 2020 study, Roeske & Tchernikovski compared recordings of thrush nightingales across Europe with [genres] including Western classical piano, Persian drumming, and Tunisian stambeli…When they charted integer ratios from birdsong and human music, the plots all produced a similar shape, resembling a long-stemmed flower…”). Not to be confused with the ultra-rare Vihangini, created by Agra vocalist Mani Prasad, or the similarly-titled Gagan Vihang (although these names are of shared derivation).
–Nivrutibuwa Sarnaik (~1970s)–
• Raag Vijayanagari •
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A scale of Southern origin, seemingly imported North by Gwalior guru Balabhau Umdekar, which matches the swara set of ‘Madhuvanti minus Ni’ (although the Carnatic original is classed as a ‘janya’ derivative of Hemavati). While I can’t trace any of Umdekar’s recordings, Malini Rajurkar has performed a pair of his bandish: Sajana Ghara Avo & Sakhi Ayengi More Sajana (as per RMIC: “In Pune, she started with an outstanding rendering of a Carnatic raga called Vijayanagari…The chalan [transcribed below] is very simple…I’ve heard two bansuri recordings, by Ajit Soman and Steve Gorn”). Subbha Rao’s Raga Nidhi Vol. 4 notes “chayas of Shivranjani [SRg; PDS], Multani [SgMP], and Madhuvanti [SRgMPD]” – evident in the twists and turns of Ashok Huggannavar’s more recent rendition, which gives strength to shuddha Re. Prakriti with the seldom-heard Shivawanti (described by its creator Imrat Khan as a direct ‘Madhuvanti-Shivranjani’ jod), as well as some forms of the divergent Madhuranjani. Also compare to the Southern incarnation – and read about the ‘Vijayanagara nonet’ (“a group of nine musicological treatises written during the Vijayanagara Empire, counted among the most important in Carnatic music theory”).
–Malini Rajurkar (~1980s)–
• Raag Virat Bhairav •
S-r-G-m-P-dD-n-S
A ‘double Dha Bhairav’ raga with a unique swara set, associated with Jaipur-Atrauli vocalists including Nivruttibuwa Sarnaik (who, according to gharana stablemate Gandhar Digrajkar, invented it). In addition to Bhairav’s classic G\rS swoop and general poorvang-focus, Parrikar notes “a rather busy uttarang: shuddha Dha is used sparingly, in special sancharis such as GmPDnDn and PDnS“ – based on its predominant composition Nayo Nayo Bairagi (a melody also picked up by Hemala Khare-Ranade). The scale presents natural shades of Ahir Bhairav, especially when descending from Sa (e.g. SnDPD), although komal dha can be used to disrupt such sequences (sometimes in consecutive ‘Dd‘ fashion, e.g. nDSn; D\d; nS). Sarnaik’s disciple Dinkar Panshikar is probably the raga’s finest living authority: refer to his recital from the 2019 Aundh Sangeet Mahotsav, as well as a 2019 lecture-demo covering the aforementioned bandish plus two more (Aaj More Shyam & Beeti Raina Bhor Bhai). Also see other ‘double Dha Bhairav’ ragas including Rati Bhairav, Tilak Bhairav, and Kabiri Bhairav.
–Dinkar Panshikar (2019)–
• Raag Viyogavarali •
S-r-g-m-d-N-S
An invention of Agra vocalist S.N. Ratanjankar, Viyogavarali (or ‘Viyog Varali Todi’) was derived by omitting Pa from the Carnatic Dhenuka (melakarta #9) – resembling ‘Chandrakauns plus komal re’ or ‘Gujiri Todi shuddha ma’. All swaras except Ni appear in their lowest specific variants, with the use of ga restricted to Todi-ang avroh motions (e.g. rgrS) – particularly evident in K.G. Ginde’s rendition of Binati Yahi Na Jaiyyo Mathura. Also see the prakriti Antardhwani, created by Shivkumar Sharma – as well as the Carnatic Varali, and other Ratanjankar-related ragas such as Salagavarali, Devgandhari Todi, and Basant Mukhari.
–K.G. Ginde (~1980s)–
• Raag Yaman •
S-R-G-M-P-D-N-S
Among the first-learned and most-performed ragas, Yaman’s influence on modern Hindustani music is impossible to overstate. Linked to the early night hours (‘when lanterns are lit’), the disbalancing effects of tivra Ma – the only non-shuddha swara on offer – allow for a kaleidoscopic emotional range, with Sa and Pa often being skipped in aroha to accentuate these yearning tensions (e.g. DNR; GMD). Variously described by listeners in terms such as ‘serene and haunting’, ‘graceful and full of bhakti’, and ‘an expression of the deep, complex mood of dusk’ – with Debasmita Bhattacharya considering it to represent “Devi, the divine feminine: I must nurture her”, and Parrikar noting that the raga has become “a touchstone among musicians in calibrating a peer’s quality and depth”. Shares its seven swaras with the related Shuddha Kalyan (‘Bhupali up, Yaman down’) – and also see a swathe of other ‘Kalyanic’ ragas including Puriya Kalyan, Kesari Kalyan, and Sanjh Saravali.
–Shahid Parvez (2018)–
• Raag Zeelaf •
S-G-m-P-d-S
A rare audav raga fabled to have been created by 13th-century qawwali pioneer Amir Khusrau, somewhat resembling ‘Bhairav minus re & Ni’. As per Rajan Parrikar, “this haunting pentatonic melody is composed of the following swaras: SGmPd. Jitendra Abhisheki gives a superb account with his own composition [transcribed below]: notice the strong ma and the subtle Gm\S meend”. Also refer to a fascinating discussion of Zeelaf’s alternate forms and possible origins by Ramesh Gangolli, based on the information in Bhatkhande’s Hindustani Sangeet Paddhati Vol. 4 (“Somnath Pandit’s Ragavibodha [c.1610] refers to a raga by the name of ‘Zuluf’, described as a mixture of the melas Karnatagouda and Bhairav. His ‘Karnatagouda’ is substantially the same as [today’s] Kanada-ang…and Bhatkhande [c.1915-20] remarks that one of the prevalent versions of Zeelaf takes the notes of Bhairav in the poorvang, [but] re is weak or omitted”).
–Jitendra Abhisheki (1991)–
• Raag Zila Kafi •
S-R-gG-m-P-D-nN-S
A springtime raga described by Satyaki Dutta as “a flow of a thousand feelings…the advent of new beginnings, painted with gleaming colours and shimmering joy”. Its Zila component (archaic spelling: ‘Jilha’) places significant emphasis on the double-Ga, while the rest of the raga tends to fit into the thumri-allied Mishra Kafi framework. Virtually all recordings I can find are either on sarod (e.g. Ali Akbar Khan) or sitar (notably Nikhil Banerjee). Pleasingly, Zila Kafi appears to be on the resurgence – in keeping with its sentiments of springtime rejuvenation. Refer to an intriguing Carnatic interpretation by legendary violinist M.S. Gopalakrishnan – and also compare to other folk-infused forms such as Pilu, Barwa, and Jungala.
–Amjad Ali Khan (2017)–
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